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Bibllothequa  natlonala  du  Canada 


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whichever  epplies. 


Les  exemplaires  origineux  dont  la  couvenure  en 
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la  derniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinto. 

Un  dee  symboles  suivants  spparaitra  sur  la 
derniire  image  do  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  la  symbols  — ^  signifie  "A  SUIVRE '.  le 
symbole  V  signifie  "FIN". 


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right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  msny  frames  es 
required.  The  following  diegrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  cartas,  planches,  tableaux,  etc..  peuvent  otra 
filmis  A  des  taux  de  reduction  diffirents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  atre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  clichi.  il  est  filme  A  partir 
da  Tangle  supirieur  gauche,  de  gauche  A  droits. 
et  de  haut  en  bas.  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'imoges  nAcessaire.  Les  diagrammas  suivants 
illustrent  le  mAthode. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

L«'  'jpfflsagai'^," 


rTiSi^ 


cSUKSiit^ 


MICROCOPY   RESOLUTION   TKT   CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHA'JT  No.  2) 


J  >IPPLIED  IIVMGE 

K  If'.?   East   Main   Street 

'«S  Rochester,   New   York        14609       USA 

SS  (716)   482  -  0300  -  Phonj 

=  (716)   288-  5989  ^  Fo« 


n, 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 

A  PRACTirAL  MANUAL 


SECOND  EDITION 

REVISED   AND  ENLARGED 


ILLUSTRATED 


i»l7Bi:,ISHB!RS 


Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Co. 


CopvmioHT  1902 

BV 

Frederick  J.  Drake  A  eo. 
Chicago.  Iix.    V.  8.  A. 


COPYRIOHT  '909 
BY 

Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Co. 

CUICAOO 


09b02i62 


PREFACE 

»hi!S^  '"*"*'•"  »^y»  Shakespeare,  "need,  no  bush." 
which  of  course  means  that  when  a  thing  is  good  n 
Jtself  pra.se  makes  it  no  better.  So  with  a  book?  If  it 
-s  good,  .t  needs  no  preface  to  make  it  better.  The 
author  of  th.s  book  flatters  himself  that  the  work  he 
has  done  on  .t,  both  as  author  and  compiler,  is  good- 
therefore,  from  his  standpoint  a  preface  to  i  i,  s^o^-* 
what  a  work  of  supererogation.     His  opinion  regaTd- 

2r  fLr''^°'  ''^'°°'^  "^^  "^^  questioned' but 
after  forty  years'  experience  as  a  writer  of  book    for 

builders    all  of  which   have  met   with   success    and 

durmg  that  time  over  thirty  years  editor  of  one  of  the 

most  popular  building  journals  in  America,  he  feeVs  hi! 

opm.on^e.nforced  as  it  is  by  thousands  of  bu ilde 

and  woodworkers  throughout  the  country,  should  be 

thil  mtle  hT  ""^'''     ^'  '''''  ''  '^  ""^y^  however, 
l'«'e  book  IS  sent  out  with  a  certainty  that  the 

IMn'.  h'    ''    "'"""  °'  "^"  ^"^  ""^y^  who'larn   hei 
I'vmg  by  working  wood,  and  fashioning  it  fo      seful 

or  ornamental  purposes,  will  appreciate  it,  be  ause 
o  Its  mam  object,  which  is  to  lessen  their  labors  b! 
placmg  before  them  the  quickest  and  most  approved 
methods  of  construction.  ^ 

To  say  more  in  this  preface  is  unnecessary  and  a 
waste  of  time  for  both  reader  and  author. 

FRED  T.  HODGSON. 

COLLINGWOOD,    ONTARIO,  July,   I902, 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 


MODERN  CAHPENTHV. 


VOL  I. 

The  necessity  of  proparinu  «  socon.l  edition  ot  this 
work  has  become  so  urpent  that  its  publication  cannot 
ho  longer  delayed.     The  demand  for  it  has  almost  out- 
grown   our  means  of  production,    a.ul   our  supply    is 
about  exhausted,  so  we  hasten  to  take  advantage  of  this 
condition  to  ,>nlarge  and  improve  the  work  and  render 
It  more  acceptable  and  valuable  than  ever.     The  addi 
tions  and   unprovi-ments   now   made   to   the   work,   are 
of  so  very  useful  and  practical  a  character,  that  we  are 
sure  thoy  will  prove  of  benefit  to  the  workman,  and  to 
the  general  student  of  the  carpenter  and  joiners'  art 

It  .s  hardly  n,.ces«ary  for  me  to  in.lulge  in  a  long 
prea„.ble  setting  forth  the  good  qualiti.>«  contained  ^„ 
the  contents  of  this  work,  as  all  this  ha.s  been  before 
the  people  now  for  several  years:  all  recent  developments 
u.  the  carpenter  trade,  however,  have  been  added  so  that 
the  present  volun.e  will  h,.  found  to  contain  the  very 
h.tcst  practice  of  doing  things.  Th.  additional  matter 
•uul  diagrams  will.  I  am  sure,  commend  themselves  to 
the  workman,  and  will.  I  hope,  prove  a  help  to  him  in 
his  everyday  labors. 

Cokngwood,  Ont..  Jtdy.  1909.     ^"^'^  ^^  "°^'^''- 


l' 


I   '■ 


MODERN    CARPENTRY 

PART   I 

CARPENTER      GEOMETRY 

CHAPTER  I 

THE   CIRCLE 

a  good  mechanic,  a  man  must  need  be  a  good  scholar 
Tf  aml^'L^'^T'  in  mathemaMcs  or  geo„,etrv  ^  t 
ereat  helni'  T    ""*J"  '^'''  '^'^""»  '^^y  ^i"  ^e  a 

w   h  .reader  s '"J"  "T'  ''"  ^°  ^'^'^"'"P''^'^  ^^^  --"^ 
win  greater  speed  and  more  exactness  than  if  he  did 

not  know  anything  about  them.     This,  i  think  all  will 
moment  K   r^-  ^'  '^^*-'^'   ^°^^^-'  ^hat  a  ^an.  The 

tru"  onartra'd'"  "'"'  °^"*'^"^  '"  ^">'  °^  ^^e  con! 

lilr^   ?K       "  "•  '"    *"""*="'  ''      °"»  knowing  it   to 

earn    the   sc.ence  of    geometry  its    rudimentary 

a  sfeel  or  o.h'  "  '"  'f " "" '  ''  '  ^°^^^  ^"^  employs 
scrl  ches  or  'r  ''•"''^'"  ''"  ^"^P^^^-  -^'  ^^en  he 
^1.       !k      P        ^  ^  '■"'     '^^'^  »he  board,  using  the 

cage  Of  the  blade  is  against  the  edge  cf  the  board  or 

pro'b  1  Tt  '•  H  ^  ''I'  ^°'^^^   »"■'  '^^^^  ^---^  ca 

diamVer^Heln?"''' '  "'"'^'  '^^  ^^  ^'>''*  '-^e, 
oiameter.     He  knows  instmctively  that  if  he  opens  his 

9 


10 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


compasses  until  the  points  of  the  legs  are  four  inches 
apart,— or  makin^-  the  radius  four  inches-he  can  by 
keeping  one  point  fixed,  called  a  "center,"  describe  a 
circle  with  the  other  leg,  the  diameter  of  which  will 
be  eight  inches.  By  this  process  he  has  solved  a 
second  geometrical  problem,  or  at  least  he  has  solved 
It  so  far  that  it  suits  his  present  purposes.  These 
examples,  of  course,  do  not  convey  to  the  operator  the 
more  subtle  qualities  of  the  right  angle  or  the  circle, 
yet  they  serve,  in  a  practical  manner,  as  assistants  in 
every-day  work. 

When  a  man  becomes  a  good  workman,  it  goes  with- 
out  saying  that  he  has  also  become  possessor  of  a  fair 
amount  of  practical  geometrical  knowledge,  though  he~ 
may  not  be  aware  of  the  fact. 

The  workman  who  can  construct  a  roof,  hipped, 
gabled,  or  otherwise,  cutting  all  his  material  on  the 
ground,  has  attained  an  advanced  practical  knowledge 
of  geometry,  though  he  may  never  have  heard  of 
Euclid  or  opened  a  book  relating  to  the  science. 
Some  of  the  best  workmen  I  have  met  were  men  who 
knew  nothing  of  geometry  as  taught  in  the  books,  yet 
It  was  no  trouble  for  them  to  lay  out  a  circular  or 
elliptical  stairway,  or  construct  a  rail  over  them  a 
feat  that  requires  a  knowledge  of  geometry  of  a  high 
order  to  properly  accomplish. 

These  few  introductory  remarks  are  made  with  the 
hope  that  the  reader  of  this  little  volume  will  not  be 
disheartened  at  the  threshold  of  his  trade,  because  of 
his  lack  of  knowledge  in  any  branch  thereof.  To 
become  a  good  carpenter  or  a  good  joiner,  a  young 
man  must  begin  at  the  bottom,  and  first  learn  his 
A,  B,  Cs,  and  the  difficulties  that  beset  him  will  disap- 
pear one  aftc  r  another  as  his  lessons  are  learned.     It 


CARPENTER  S    GEOMETRY  h 

must  always  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  young 
fellow  who  enters  a  shop,  fully  equipped  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  general  mathematics  and  geometry,  is  in  a 
much  better  position  to  solve  the  work  problems  that 
crop  up  daily,  than  the  one  who  starts  work  without 
such  equipment.  If,  however,  the  latter  fellow  be  a 
boy  possessed  of  courage  and  perseverance,  there  is  no 


eason   why  he    should  not  "catch  up"-even  over- 

h.nT  7  Tl!  '^'  '"'''"'  advantages,  for  what  is 
then  learned  will  be  more  apt  to  be  better  understood, 
and  more  readily  applied  to  the  requirements  of  his 
Tvn  /u  ^''"'  ^""  '"  "^^t^^hing  up-  with  his  more 
favored  shopmate,  I  propose  to  submit  for  his  benefit 
t™  H  .^'"'P''°"  ^"d  explanation  of  what  may  be 
termed     Carpenter's  Geometry,"  which  will  be  quite 


".■  jiy  iij-    '-"i 


19 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


sufficient  If  he  learn  it  well,  to  enable  him  to  execute 

I  wilTl  s    ''  Y  T  '!.""^^  "P^"  *°  perform    and 

1  will  do  so  as  clearly  and  plainly  as  possible,  and  in 

as  few  words  as  the  instructions  can  be  framed  so  as  o 
make  them  intelligible  to  the  student 

2  at'shT'"  "^T  '"  ^•^-  '  '^  ^•■"^"  f^^*"  the  center 
2.   as  shown,   and  may  be  said  to  be  a  plain  figure 
w.th,n  a  continual  curved  line,  every  part  of  the  hne 
being  equally  distant  from  the  center  2.      I    Ys    Ee 
s.mp  est  of  all  figures  ro  draw.     The  line  AB.  wh  ch 
Hne  *^^^!-7^— .  ■-  "lied  the  diameter.  Zlt 
Z    A       u-  ^^"°'"'"^t^d    a  chord,   and   the  area  en- 
closed wuhm  the  curved  line  and  the  chord  is  termed 
a  segment.     The  radius  of  a  circle  is  a  line  drawn  f'orn 
ialf'^h     .^  "  V'l  -'-"-f^-ce  C.  and  is  always  one 
half  the  length  of  the  diameter,  no  matter  what  that 
diameter  may  be.     A  tangent  is  a  Hne  which  touche 
the  c.rcumference  at  some  point  and  is  at  right  angle 
w.th  a  rad.al  Ime  drawn  to  that  point  as  shown  at  C 

other  fil  f'-equently  used    when  explanations  of 

other  figures  are  made;  and  it  is  essential  that  the 
learner  should  memorize  both  the  terms  and  their  sig! 
n.ficat.ons  m  order  that  he  may  the  more  readify 
understand  the  problems  submitted  for  solution  ^ 

n.      ^.'"2r"u'y  ^^PP^"^  that  the  center  of  a  circle  is 
not  vjs.ble  but  must  be  found  in  order  to  compLe 
the   arc  e  or   form   some  part  of  the  circumferencl 
The  center  of  any  circle  may  be  found  ,     follows:  let 

mA    a   fh  'h        ',  ''^"^  "^    '^'    ''S^'"'  H;    and 
BJA    a   chord    enclosmg    the     segment.      Bisect    or 

down  frori'h     ^"■'''  '''  ''°'^  ^^'  ^^  "•  -"d  square 

Chord   AIR  P°'"'  '"  °-     ^°  '^'  ^^"^^  ^''th  the 

chord   AJB,  squaring   over    trom   J  to   D,  then  thq 


MMit^-ay>»9a'MBB;wEaHwt*rsiwRJ^.tfi^r^'a^^^ 


CARPENTER'S   GEOMETRY  ,3 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  problems  for  the 
carpenter  .n  the  whole  range  of  geometry  as  it  enables 
the  workman  to  locate  any  center,  and  to  draw  ounces 
he  could  not  other«-ise  describe  without  this  or  other 
s.m.lar  methods.  It  is  by  aid  of  this  problem  ha 
through   any  three   points   not  in  a  straigh    Une    a 


arcle  can  be  drawn  that  will  pass  through  each  of  the 
three  pomts.     Its  usefulness  will  be  shown  farther  on 

tl'I^'!?  '°  '^r'"^  °"'  segmental  or  curved  top 
window  door  and  other  frames  and  sashes,  and  the 
earner  should  thoroughly  master  this  problem  before 
stepping  further,  as  a  full  knowledge  of  it  will  assist 
h.m  very  materially  in  understanding  other  problems. 
The  circumference  of  every  circle  is  measured  by 
being  supposed  to  be  divided  into  360  equal  parts, 
called  degrees;   each  degree  containing  60  minutec,  a 


:l| 


Wi^-ixf&amsLi^t' 


ML,t^ 


»4 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


smaller  division,  and  each  minute  into  60  secmds  a 
still  smaller  division.  Degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds 
are  written  thus:  45°  15'  30",  which  is  read,  forty-five 
degrees,  fifteen  minutes,  and  thirty  seconds.  This  I 
think  will  be  quite  clear  to  the  reader.  Arcs  are  meas- 
ured  by  the  number  of  degrees  which  they  contain:  thus 
'n  Fig.  3,  the  arc  AE,  which  contains  90°,  is  called  i 
quadrant,  or  the  quarter  of  a  circumference,  because 


90  IS  one  quarter  of  36o\  and  the  arc  ABC  whicK  con- 
tains 180  IS  a  semi-circumference.  Every  angle  -s  also 
measured  by  degrees,  the  degrees  being  reckoned  on  an 
arc  included  between  its  sides;  described  from  the  ver- 
*u  .i^l^  ^"^'^  as  a  center,  as  the  point  O,  Fig  v 
thus,  AOE  contains  90°;  and  the  angle  BOD.  which  is' 
half  a  right  angle,  is  called  an  angle  of  45°,  which  is 


-'^S^W^V^SiilSrj^^i-SL'r^^e^'a^Kaax:    OMmUR 


CARPENTER'S   GEOMETRY  ,5 

the  number  it  contains,  as  will  be  seen  by  counting 
off  the  spaces  as  shown  by  the  divisions  on  the  curved 
hne  BD.  Thc.e  rules  hold  good,  no  matter  what  may 
be  the  diameter  of  the  circle  If  large,  the  divisions 
are  large;  if  small,  the  divisions  are  small,  but  the 
manner  of  reckoning  is  always  the  same. 

One  of  the  qualities  of  the  circle  is,  that  when 
divided  in  two  by  a  diameter,  making  two  semicircles, 
any  Choi  '  starting  at  the  extremity  of  such  a  diameter, 
as  at  A  or  B,  Fig.  4,  ar  '  cutting  the  circumference  at 
any  point,  as  at  C,  D     r  E.  a  line  drawn  from  this 


point  to    the  other  extremity  of    the   diameter,   will 
torm  a  right  angle-or  be  square  with  the  first  chord, 
as  -.s  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  BCA,  BDA,  and  BEA 
Ihis  IS  something  to  be  remembered,  as  the  problem 
win  be  found  useful  on  many  occasions. 

The  diagram  sho^vn  at  Fig.  5  represents  a  he::ar  :i 
within  a  circle.     This  is  obtained  by  stepping  aro- 
the  circumfer.'nce,  with  the  radius  of  the  circle  on  tn 
compasses,  six  times,  which  divides  the  circumference 
into  SIX  equal  parts;  then  draw  lines  to  each  point 
which,  when  completed,  will  form  a  hexagon,  a  six- 
sided    ngure.      By   drawing    lines    from    the    points 
obtained  in  the  circumference  to  ihe  center,  we  get  a 


! 


X6 


MODERN  CARPENTRV 


.  I 


Inairif?  •'^"''''  •^'"■'*'  •■'  ""^^  ^"  equilateral  trl- 
angle,  that  .s,  a  tnangle  having  all  iis  sid.s  equal  m 


^V 


length;  as  AB.  AC  and  BC.    The  dotted  lines  show  how 
an  equilateral  tnangle  may  be  produced  on  a  straight 
line  It  necessary. 
The   diagram   shown  -     ^ Ic 

at  Fig.  6  illustrates  the 

method  of  trisecting  a 

ri£ht  angle  or  quadrant 

into  three  equal  parts. 

Let  A  be  a  center,  and 

with    the   same    radius 

intersect  at  E,  thus  the 

quadrant  or  right  angle 

is   divided    into    three 

equal  parts. 


CARPENTER'S   GEOMETRY  17 

If  we  wish  to  get  the  length  of  a  straight  line  that 
shall  equal  the  circumference  of  a  circ' ;  or  part  of 
circle  or  quadrant,  we  can  do  so  by  procceriing  as  fol- 
lows: Suppose  Fig.  7  to  represent  half  of  the  circle, 
as  it  ABC;  then  draw  the  chord  BC  divide  it  at  p' 
join  it  at  A;  then  four  times  PA  is  oqual  to  the  cirl 
cumference  of  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  AC,  or  equal 
to  the  curve  CB. 

To  divide  the  quadrant  AB  into  any  number  of 
equal  parts,  say  thirteen,  we  simply  lay  on  a  rule  and 
make  the  distance  from  A  to  R  measure  three  and  one- 


fourth  inches,  which  are  thirteen  quarters  or  parts  on 
the  rule;   rnake  R2  equal  one-fourth  of  an  inch;   joiu 

fll  p(r    uV  ?f ^"''  ^''"'  ^P-  '^""'"g  ^t  V;  now 
take  PV  in  the  dividers  and  set  off  from  A  on  the  circle 

thirteen  parts,  which  end  at  B,  each  part  being  equal 
to  PV,  and  the  problem  is  solved.  The  "stretchout" 
or  length  of  any  curved  line  in  the  circle  can  then  be 
obtained  by  breaking  it  into  segments  by  chords,  as 
shown  at  BN. 

I  have  shown  in  Fig.  5,  how  to  construct  an  equi- 
lateral triangle  by  the  use  of  the  compasses,     i  give  at 


i8 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


Fig  8  a  practical  example  of  how  this  figure  ;,,  <.„. 
nect,o„  w„h  ccles,  may  be  employed  in  deLibinTa 
figure  known  as  the  trefoil,  a  figure  made  much  use  o 

Ea'ch"c"orr  oflera^Te  Ts  AK   ir'   T-^h''- 

ctf^^'Vnrir  '^' '""'-""'  ---"'= 

circles.      Ihe  latter  curves  are  struck  from  the  center 


O  which  is  found  by  dividing  the  sides  of  the  equi- 
O      TKlnTr '"""'"« ''°""  -''I  *e  lines  c^o  s 

^e  .ad?:-rb';";;^t;"„-j;::.---^': 
Xsy^=r.u?-^^ 

handle  a  rule  and  compass  should  be  able  to  consJuct 
»t  after  a  few  minutes'  thouuhr.     Thi=  f^.JelZ    ? 
to  n^ost  Gothic  ornamentation,  and  is  wtrmasterit;! 


ocTHt-A"' 


''^--^-'^v-fsr^-^p*,-  v"  -W 


There 


CARPENTER'S   GEOMETRY 
another  rm 


«9 


enff  h    the    crcnmferencc   ,,f    the    semicircle.      The 
ows      Through   X  draw  RW.   then  WU  will   be  the 

mX  SX      Th'^"'^'  °'  ''''  P^^^'-  <^^  ^^e  cird 
ma.kcd  SX      There  are  several  other  ways  of  deter- 

m  n,ng  by  h„es  a  near  approach  to  the  length  of    he 

c.rcumference  or  a  portion  thereof:  but,  theorcticallv 

he  exact  -'stretchout-  of  a  circumference  has  no   been 

found   by  any  of   the   known    methods,   ei  her  ari'h- 


■%.'?5sS\JSIllPA*«!i» 


ao 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


No  .etH^  However.  th!t  ir.l^ir.eran";^,';; 
sample  so  convenient  and  so  accurate  as  the  arith! 
metical  one.  wh.ch  I  give  herewith.  If  we  mu't?Dlv 
the  diameter  of  a  circle  hv  ,  t^.a  ♦»,  ^^  multiply 
trive  the  \ertafh  J  lu  •  ^  '*'^'  ^^^  P''oduct  will 
give  tne  length  of  the  circumference,  very  nearlv 
These  figures  are    based    on   the   fact  that  a  ctrde 

re'^ml^r  '  ^'--^—  oi  nearly  3.  ^le  ti::: 

With  the  exception 
of  the   formation  of 
mouldings,  and  orna- 
mentation where  the 
circle    and   its  parts 
take    a    prominent 
part,    I     have     sub- 
mitted nearly  all  con- 
cerning   the     figure, 
the  everyday  carpen- 
ter   will     be     called 

to  use  tt'lT?   '"^  ''*"  °"'  '  "'"  ''y  ^"^  ^^°-  how 
10  use  the  knowleofe-e  now  given 

wefrtM'"'""?  '^'  '"^^'^^'  ^°^^^^'-'  '*  "^«y  be  a, 

radius,   may  be  obtained- -practically-if    but    three 

t'o'in  the"       ,  "■^^""^^^-"-  -^  available;   as  referred 
to  in  the  explanation  given  of  Fig.  5.     Let  us  suppose 

rdr::  ABC  T''  ''"T  '"  *'^  circumference^: 

cTn  be  found  k'^'  '°'  '  ''"'"■  ''  ^"^'^  ^•'•^'^ 

bt  strLht  !        ^  *^°""^^^'"g   the  points  AB  and  BC 
by  straight  lines  as  shown,  and  by  dividii 


ng  these  lines 


'  ^  kL-SBfe  rm&ffi^t^mXTi^'r^:  -  *'  «'*«>»- , 


CARPENTER'S   GEOMETRY 


•I 


and  squaring  down  as  shown  until  the  lines  intersect  at 
O  as  shown  This  point  O  is  the  center  of  the  circle. 
It  frequently  happens  that  it  is  not  possible  to  find  a 
place  to  locate  a  center,  because  of  the  diameter  being 
so  great,  as  in  segm*  ntal  windox.s  and  doors  of  large- 
dimensions.      To  overcome    this  difficulty  a  method 


^M 


has  been  devised  by  which  the  curve  may  be  correctly 
drawn  by  nailing  three  wooden  strips  together  so  as  to 
form  a  triangle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  n.  Suppose  NO  to 
be  the  chord  or  width  of  frame,  and  QP  the  height  of 
segment,  measuring  from  thr  springing  lines  N  and  O- 
drive  nails  or  pins  at  O  and  N,  keep  the  triangle  close 
against  the  nails,  and  place  a  pencil  at  P,  then  slide 
the  triangle  against  the  pins  or  nails  while  sliding,  and 
the  pencil  will  describe  the  necessary  curve.  The 
arms  of  the  triangle  should  be  several  inches  longer 
than  the  line  NO,  so  that  when  the  pencil  P  arrives  at 
N  or  O,  the  arms  will  still  rest  against  the  pins, 


"^nff^ff^^^K!S?^?5!!S'vTT 


CHAPTER  II 


POLVGONS 

"  an    equilateral    rect- 

anpl'?.  A  polygon 
of  five  sides  is  a 
pentagon.  A  poly- 
gon of  six  sides  is  a 
hexagon,  A  poly- 
gon of  seven  sides  is 
called  a  heptagon. 
_  A  polygon  of  eight 

ocagon.     A  polygon  of  „,•„.  side/;'"  „:ial':'    '" 
A  polygon  o,  ,.n  s,d«  U  called  a  deca,:^    '  A  p.  r'Tn 
of  eleven  s.des  is  called  an  undecagon.     And^  LTv 
gon  of  twelve  sides  is  called  a  dodecagon  "^    ^' 

mere  are  regular  and  irregular  polygons      Those 
having  equal  s.des  are  regular;   ehose  having  nnloual 

sides  are  known  among  cnrpeneers  by  bein..  denom 
na  ed  as  a   polygon  having  "so  mauv  sides."  as  ,' 
iwlygon  with  fourteen  sides, "  and  so  on,  ' 

22 


fsii.:  v^^if^sfM/SK'^^wmsr-iiiifTaBtsm'mr^atm'yiKtt -'Ji*rsti^^'^<i.i?'r:'9^K9mciv.z:'r-v 


i 


CARPENTERS   GEOMETRY  ., 

Polygons  are  often  made  use  of  in  carpenter  work 
particularly  in  the  formation  of  bay-windows,  oriels' 
towers,  spires,  and  similar  work;  particularly  is  this 
the  case  with  the  hexagon  and  the  octagon;  but  the 
most  used  is  the  equilateral  rectangle,  or  square; 
therefore  .t  .s  essential  that  the  carpenter  should 
know  considerable  regarding  these  figures,  both  as  to 
then  qualities  and  their  construction. 

The  polygon    having   the  least  lines  is  the  trigon. 
a  thrce^sided  figure      This  is  constructed  as  follows: 
Jr'    ^'^-    *'    ^^   ^"y  given    line,    and   the   dis- 
tance CD  the  length  of  the  side  required.     Then  with 
one  leg  of  the  compass  on  D  as  a  center,  and  the  other 
on    C,    describe    the    arc 
shown  at  P.     Then  with 
C  as  a  center,  describe  an- 
other arc  at  P,  cutting  the 
first  arc.     From  this  point 
of    intersection   draw   the 
lines  PD  and  PC,  and  the 
figure    is    complete.      To 
get  the  miter  joint  of  this 
figure,    divide     one     side 
into  two  equal  parts,  and 

from  the  point  obtained  draw  a  line  through  opnosite 
angle  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line,  and  this  Hne  w^  be 
the  line  of  pint  at  C.  or  for  any  of  the  other  anj 

The  square,  or  equilateral  rectangle.  Fig   2   may  be 
obtained  by  a  number  of  methods,  many  of  whiTh  wu! 

haTmUtor'^"  ^°  ^'^  ''''''■     '  ^^'^  ----h  d 

takineHI    .c     >  jhc  oth;.  sides  are  found  by 

taking  HL  as  radius,  and  with  LN  for  centers  make 
the  tntersection  in  P.  draw  LP  and  NP.  which  com! 


m. 


»4 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


The  deed  ,i„e  shot-st elin^e' or U,"  7Zr'"- 


length  of  o?e  s'ido  of  Zfi  "''  ?P"'^''  °ff  ">  ""= 

"--.„oe,:r;:?r^j-:Ta--,- 

make  BN  equal  to 
AB,    strike    an    arc 
3N  as  shown  by  the 
flotted   lines,  with  2 
as   a  center   and  N 
as  a  radius,  cutting 
the  given  line  at  3. 
Take  A3  for  radius; 
<rom   A   and   B   as 
centers,     make    the 
intersection    in     D; 
from      D,     with     a 


i 


CARPENTER'S   GEOMETRY  25 

Mdius  equal  to  AB,  strike  an  arc;  with  the  same  radius 
and  A  and  B  as  centers,  intersect  the  arc  in  EC.  By 
joining  these  points  the  pentagon  is  formed.  The  cut, 
or  angle  of  joints,  is  found  by  raising  a  line  from  2  and 
cutting  D,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line. 

The  hexagon,  a  six-sided  figure  shown  at  Fig.  4,  is 
one  of  the  simplest  to  construct.     A  quick  method  is 
described  in  Chapter  I,  when  dealing  with  circles,  but 
I  show  the  method  of  construction  in  order  to  be  cer- 
tain that  the  student  may  be  the  better  equipped  to 
deal  with  the  figure.     Take  the  length  uf  one  side  of 
the  figure  on  compasses;   make  this  length  the  radius 
of  a  circle,   thus  describe  a  circle  as  shown.     Start 
from  any  point,  as  at  A,  and  step  around  the  circum- 
ference of  the  circle  with  the  radius  of  it,  and  the 
points    from 
which    to   draw 
the    sides    are 
found,    as    the 
radius  of  any  cir- 
cle    will    divide 
the  c  i  r  c  u  m- 
ference    of     that 
circle    into    s  i  x 
equal  parts. 

This  figure  may 
be  drawn  without 
first  making  a  circle  if  necessary.  Set  off  two  equal 
parts,  ABC,  Fig.  5,  making  three  centers;  from  each, 
with  radius  AC,  make  the  intersection  as  shown, 
through  which  draw  straight  lines,  and  a  hexagon  is 
formed.  The  miter  joint  follows  either  of  the  straight 
lines  passing  through  the  center,  the  bevei  indicating 
the  proper  angle. 


a6 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


i: 


TL 


construction    of    a    hen«-acTr,r.    ^ 
%ure  .ay  be  accomplished  XT:s:\T2r^^ 
6.  be  a  given  line,  and  the  distance  An  II     t         ,   ^■ 
•he  side  of  the  figure      Divide.  «V  "«"'  "' 

fhis  point,  then  take  AB  ,     '  dts  a'ndT  ""  '"'" 
intersect  the  line  from  K  „  i  ,.  "'  ^  '"'"^ 

A  as  center,  draw  th"  cur  e  i  T  th""'.  u''"'  '"" 
radius,  and  from  .  as  a  ce  r  in'.er'sect  the  ,*''-  '= 
draw  from  it  to  B,  cutting  at  N  th  .  f!''''^  "  3; 
draw  from  A;   make  AD  L     f '  ""°'"^''  "hich  point 

draw  from  3  paTalt^lt^hTD.  IJll^i'"'  '°^ 
L.  cutting  ,.  Ci  join  it  and  a',  tl™  tm  3  S 

With  AC;  make 
3H  equal  AB, 
and  CE  equal 
ND;  join  ED; 
draw     from     H 

parallel  with  3C, 
cutting  at  F 
join  this  line 
and  E,  which 
completes  t  h  e 
heptagon.  It  is 
not  often  this 
figure  is  used  in 

^^'^idtra:7drr:™sn'?"-^^^^^^^^^^ 

HF,   FE,   and  ED      Th   '  7.1^        ,T  '"'"•  3"' 
-eswe,nnaconserXrorrsr,aX^" 

colirzrfiti'arit"::::;;'':""'  ^"°^ "» '° 

..iu.rtesaprin?ip,;„7;rarr,,rpa'ra,,;';rrS<:.",'' 
ed..  ul  „h,ci,  would  be  found  invaluable  .0  the  a°bi' 


iiM 


CARPENTERS   GEOMETRY 


27 


tJous  young  carpenter,  who  desires  to  become,  not  only 
a  good  workman,  but  a  good  draftsman  as  well. 

The  octagon  or  eight-sided  figure  claims  rank  next 
to  the  square  and  circle,  in  point  of  usefulness  to  the 
general  carpenter,  owing  partly  to  its  symmetry  of 
form,  and  its  simplicity  of  construction.  There  are  a 
great  number  of  methods  of  constructing  this  figure, 
but  I  will  give  only  a  icw  of  the  simplest,  and  the  ones 
most  likely  to  be  readily  understood  by  the  ordinary 
workman. 

One  of  the  simplest  methods  of  forming  an  octagon 
is  shown  at  Fig.  7, 
where  the  corners  of 
the  square  are  used  as 
centers,  and  to  the  cen- 
ter A  of  the  square  for 
radius.  Parts  of  a  cir- 
cle are  then  drawn  and 
continued  until  the 
boundary  lines  are  cut. 
At  the  points  found 
draw  diagonal  lines 
across  the  corner  as 
shown,  and  the  figure 
will  be  a  complete  octagon,  havin^r  all  its  sides  of 
equal  length. 

The  method  of  obtaining  the  joint  cut  or  miter  for 
an  octagon  is  shown  at  Fig.  8,  where  the  angic  ABC, 
is  divided  into  two  equal  angles  by  the  •  Jlowing 
process:  From  B,  with  any  radius,  strike  an  arc,  giving 
A  and  C  as  centers,  from  which,  with  any  radius,  make 
an  intersection,  as  shown,  and  through  it  f^om  B,  draw 
a  line,  and  the  proper  angle  for  the  cut  is  obtained,  the 
dotted  line  being  the  angle  sought.     By  this  method 


28 


t 


MOOERN  CARPENTRY 


;  -r..  or  cut  may  be  obtained.     This 
is  a  very  useful  prob- 
lem,  as    it  is  often 
called    into    requisi- 
tion    for    cutting 
moulding,  in  panels 
and     other     work, 
where  the  angles  are 
not     square,    as     in 
stair    spandrils    and 
raking  wainscot. 

octagon  when  the  leneth  of  on.    f^?    construct     an 
as  AR    F,„  'cngtn  ot  one  of  its  sides  is       -.„ 

AB.  F,g.  9.  square  up  the  two  lines,  AN.  BF;  the„ 

ir 


I; 


take  AB  as  radius  with   A   pnH   r 
draw  the  arcs    mui         u  "   ^^  centers,    and 

arcs,    cutting   the   two  lines  at  C  and  J; 


CARPENTER'S  GEOMETRY 


39 


draw  from  AB,  through  CJ,  and  again  ^rom  A  draw 
parallel  with  BJ;  then  draw  from  B  para.'le!  with 
AC;  make  BV  and  CF  equal  AB;  join  EV;  make 
CF  equal  CA;  square  over  FN;  join  FE;  draw  NP 
parallel  with  AC,  then  join  PR,  and  the  figure  is 
complete. 


As  the  sides  of  all  regular  octagons  are  at  an  angle 
of  45''  with  each  other,  it  follows  that  an  oct- gon  may 
be  readily  constructed  by  making  use  of  a  set  square 
having  its  third  side  to  correspond  with  an  angle  of 
45°,  for  by  extending  the  line  AB,  and  laying  the  set 
square  on  the  line  with  o:  point  at  B,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  10,  the  line  V'\  Fig.  9,  can  be  drawn,  and  when 
made  the  same  '  th  as  BV,  the  process  an  be 
repeated  to  VE;  so  on  until  all  the  points  have 

been  connected. 

Suppose  v,^  have  a  square  stick  of  timber  12  x  12 
inches,  and  any  length,  and  we  wish  to  make  it  an  octa- 
gon; we  will  first  be  obliged  to  find  the  gauge  points 
so  as  to  mark  the  stick,  to  snap  a  chalk  line  on  it  so  as 
to  tell  how  much  of  the  corners  must  be  removed  in 
order  to  give  to  the  stick  eight  sides  of  equal  width. 
Wc  do  this  as  follows;     Make  a  drawing  the  size  of  a 


30 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


section  ot  thp  tlmU^     .■_ 

•nches,-  square  over  from  C  eo  K"        ',  "''""'  "  '*<=!« 
BK.  and  run  your  line,  „  ,his  "  ^""^  f^^^Se  to 

corners  off  eo  lines   anH  ,1,      [■  T'"^''-  ""''  remove  the 
son  having  eight  e^uTuL'eV"'"  """  "'"  "■=  -  oZ 

TO-  are  a  „u„Bero,  other  methods  o,  Ending  .he 


ff 


ri 


II 


puge  pointo,  some  of  which  T  m.    ^        • 

b"t  I  think  I  have  cJwel    Ion  "'">'^^^"'be  further  on 

-able  the  reader  t^^lT^,^''  ^"  P«->'^--  to 
The  polygons  not  described  .r  'f'^^P^^'^  ^'^^n. 

of  -carpentry,  that  no    'thor    vT,  T^  "^^^  "- 
descnbes  the.n  when  wrft  „.  ^f^^  ^^^  '  ^"?  ^-are  of 

'"^"i  though  in  nearly  all  works  on  ^K '"'"'''"'  ^'''^^ 

y        works  on  theoretical  geom- 


CARPENTER'S  GEOMETRY  31 

?try  the  figures  are  given  with  all  their  qualities.  If 
the  solution  of  any  of  tht  problems  offered  in  this 
work  requires  a  description  and  explanation  of  poly- 
gons with  a  greater  number  of  sides  than  eight,  such 
explanation  will  be  given. 


CHAPTER  III 


M 


SOME   STRAIGHT   LINE   SOLUTIONS 

The  greatest  number  of  difficnlf  nr^Ki 
Tyare  susceptible  of  =ol,' o^bv  ?  f  iro^T'''^"- 

^  in  this  chapter  I  will 

emicavor  to  show  the 

reader  how  some  of 

the  problems  may  be 

-.    ^       I  solved,   though   it   is 

v^'^'       I  not  intended  to  offer 

a  treatise  on  the 
subject  of  the  utility 
of  the  steel  square, 
as  that  subject  has 
been  treated  at 
works,  and  another  anH  «  ^  '.*^ngth  in  other 
preparation-   bu    i^  i.  ?.    ^''^'^"^t.ve  wo.k  is  now  in 

can'becomplet  Vi  h  :':;i  Lrh""'  ""  ^^^^^"^^ 
solutions  that  mav  h.   .  '  1    '  showmg  some  of  the 

of  this  wondLruMnst;''°7     "T'  '^  ''''  ^^^P^''  -*^ 
we  proceed  '"^^'^"■"^"t,  and  this  will  be  done  as 

'ine  without  tLaTdo'"e"Tr?'T  '''''''' 
follows:    Let   TK"    p  ?  ^^"  '^  obtained  as 

and  make  F  ani  pofn'f  in'th  ^'^  ^"'^"  ^^^^'^^*  ''-' 
line  required  Fr^ '  V  ..  ''^""'^  °^  Perpendicular 
«i    rea.     ^^m  F  with  any  radius,  strike  the  arc 

32 


CARPENTER'S  GEOMETRY  33 

cutting  in  JK;  with  these  points  as  centers,  and  any 
radius  greater  than  half  JK.  make  intersection  as 
shown,  and  from  this  point  draw  a  line  to  F,  and  this 
line  is  the  perpendicular  required.  Foundations,  and 
other  works  on  a  large  scale  are  often  "squared"  or 
laid  out  by  this  method,  or  by  another  which  I  will 
submit  later. 

In  a  previous  illustration  I  showed  how  to  bisect  an 
angle  by  using  the  compasses  and  straight  lines,  so  as 
to  obtain  the  proper  joints  or  miters  for  the  angles.    At 
Fig.  2, 1  show  how  this  may  be  done  by  the  aid  of  the  steel 
square     alone, 
as  follows:  The 
angle    is    ob- 
tuse, and  may 
be   that  of  an 
octagon  or 
pentagon      o  r 
other  polygon. 
Mwk  any  two 
points   on   the 
angle,  as  DN, 
equally  distant  from  the  point  of  angle  L;   apply  the 
steel  square  as  shown,  keeping  the  distance  EN  and 
ED  the  same,  then  a  line  running  through  the  angle  L 
and  the  pomt  of  the  square  E  will  be  the  line  sought 
To  bisect  an  acute  angle  by  the  same  method,  pro- 
ceed as  follows:     Mark  any  two  points  AC     Fig   -, 
equally  distant   from   B;    apply  the  steel   square   a^ 
shown,  keepmg  its  sides  on  AC;  then  the  distance  on 
each  side  of  the  square  being  equal  from  the  corner 
gives  It  for  a  point,  through  which  draw  a  line  from  B 
and  the  angle  is   divided.      Both  angles  shown    are 
divided  by  the  same  method,  making  the  intersection 


34 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


•'n  P  the  center  of  ihf  triangle.     The  mam  fK-      *^ 

con..dered  i„  this  -lutionl  to  la^eT  J^ir^,  A 

f  M  and  C    equal 

from  the  point 
^;     also    an 
t^ual  distance 
from  the  point 
or   toe   of   the 
square    to   the 
points  of  con- 
tact C   and  A 
on    the    boun- 
dary lines. 
'^  repetition 
method  of  bisectintr  a„„i  .  of    the    same 

shown  at  Fig?    Th^rf     •  ""'^^  '''^''  conditions,  is 
*«g.  4.     The  process  .s  just  the  same,  and  the 


"pSoitTn^L:-   -'--",,„... 


CARPENTERS   GEOMETRY 


JS 


To  get  a  correct  miter  cut,  or.  in  other  wortls.  an 
angle  of  45-.  on  a  board,  make  either  ot  the  points  .; 
or  C,  Fig.  5,  the  starting  point  for  the  rri'er.  on  the 
edge  of  the 
board,  then  ap- 
ply the  square 
as  shown,  keep- 
ing the  figure 
12"  at  A  or  C, 
as  the  case  may 

be,  with  the  fig-     >j^  jt^g 

ure   12"  on   the 

other  blade  of  the  square  on  the  edge  of  the  board  as 
shown;  then  the  slopes  .-n  the  edge  ot  the  square  from 
A  to  B  and  C  to  H.  will  form  anj,'les  of  45  with  the 
base  line  AC.  This  problem  is  useful  from  many 
points  of  view,  and  will  often  suggest  itself  to  the 
workman  in  his  daily  labor. 

To^construct  a  figure  showing  on  one  side  an  angle 
of  30°  and  on  the  other  an  angle  of  Oo",  by  the  use  of 


Fi^.d 


th.  steel  square,  we  go  to  work  as  follows:    Mark  on  the 
edge  of  a  board  two  equal   spaces  as  AB,  BC,  Fig  6 
apply  the  square,  keeping  its  blade  on  AC  and' making 


36 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


AD   equal  AB;   then    the    angles    30°  and  6o-  are 
formed  a,  shown.     If  we  make  a  tjplet  cutTxactly 

this  irr  ^''-  ';  f "  '  ^""»''^'   -»  -  'hown  h 
this  last  figure,  and  these  templets  arc  made  of  ,..me 

hard  wood   we  get  a  pair  of  set  square,  for  drawing! 

purposes,   by  which  a    lar,.-   number  of  geomttn'cal 

problems  and  drawing  kinks  may  be  wrought  Z 

The  diameter  of  any  circle  within  the  range  of  the 

dlowTTr^''^'  'f  r'"^'  '>'^^^  instrumental 
follows.  The  corner  of  the  square  touching  any  part 
of  the  circumference  A.  Fig.  7.  and  the  blade  cutting 
•n  pomt,   C.   B.  gives  the  diameter  of   the  circle  a» 


shown.  Another  application  of  this  principle  is,  that 
the  diameter  of  a  circle  being  known" the  square  may 
e  employed  to  describe  the  circumference.'  Suppo  e 
CB  to  be  the  known  diameter;  then  put  in  two  nails 
as  shown,  one  at  B  and  the  other  at  C.  app^y  the 

tinualy  sliding  it  around,  then  the  point  of  the  square 
A  will  describe  half  the  circumference.      Apply  the 


^m 


f;  I 


CARPENTERS   GEOMETRY 


31 


■'q'lare  to  the  other  side  of  the  nails,  iuicj  repeat  the 
l)ro«:ess.  when  the  whole  circle  will  be  described.  This 
problem  may  be  applied  to  the  solution  of  many  others 
of  a  similar  nature 

At  Fig.  8,  I  show  how  an  equilateral  triangle  may 
be  obtained  by  the   use  of  a  square.      Draw  the   line 


DC;  take  12  on  the  blade  and  7  on  the  tongue;  mark 
on  the  tongue  for  one  side  of  the  figure.  Make  the  dis- 
tance from  D  to  A  equal  to  the  desired  length  of  one  side 
of  the  figun  Re\erse  the  square,  placing  it  as  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines  in  the  sketch,  brinj^ing  7  of  the  tongue 
against  the  point  A.  Scribe  along  the  tongue,  pro 
ducing  the  line  until  it  intersects  the  first  line  drawn 
in  the  f>oint  E,  then  AEH  will  be  an  ecjuilateral  tri- 
angle. A  method  of  describing  a  he.\agon  by  the 
square,  is  shown  at  Fig.  g,  which  is  quite  simple. 
Draw  the  line  GH;  lay  off  the  retpiired  length  of  one 
side  on  this  line,  as  DE.  Place  the  square  as  before, 
with  12  of  the  blade  and  7  of  the  tongue  against  the 
line  GH;  placing  7  of  the  t  jng'ie  against  the  point  D, 
scribe  along  the  tongue  for  the  side  DC.  Place  the 
square  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines;  bringing  7  of  the 
tongue  against  the  point  E,  scribe  the  side  EF.     Con- 


;^fm^'.:A^^^^^^^rms^ 


^L-.- 


38 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


tinue  in  this  way  until  the  other  half  of  the  figure  is 
drawn.     All  is  shown  by  FABC 

FiIs''2Ta"nT;'f'''r''"^"'^'"'^'"   ^^-   ^hownin 
tigs.  2,  3  and  4  of  the  present  chapter,  so  that  it  is 

not  necessary  to  repeat  the  process  at  this  time 

The    method    of    describing   an   octagon    by  usine 

the  square,  .s  shown  at   Fig.  10.      Lay  off    a   squlrf 


section  with  any  length  of  sides,  as  AB.     Bisect  this 
side  and    place    the   square    as   shown    on    the    side 

AB,  with  the  length 
bisected  on  the  blade 
and    tongue;     then 
the  tongue  cuts  the 
side  at  the  point  to 
gauge   for  the  piece 
to  be  removed.     To 
find    the    size    of 
square    required    for 
an  octagonal   prism, 
when     the    side    is 
given:    Let  CD  equal 
the  given  side;  place 
the    square     on    the 


Wi^   m^^  M.  ^MSiOP^aa  --^^tB^. ^^*> Jir^ 


CARPENTER'S  GEOMETRY 


39 


line  cf  the  side,  with  one-half  of  the  side  on  the  blade 
and  tone-  ?;  then  the  tong^ue  cuts  the  line  at  the  point 
B,  w'  i:h  ucterriiines  the  size  oi  the  square,  and  the 
piec«  to  be  reirov*  .. 
A  !*'£ ;  approxJria- 
tion  lo  tli^,  iLrr'n  or 
stretch-out  of  a  cir- 
cumference of  a  cir- 
cle may  be  obtained 
by  the  aid  of  the 
steel  square  and  a 
straight  line,  as  fol- 
lows: Take  throe 
diameters  of  the 
circle  and  measure  up  the  side  of  the  blade  of  the 
square,  as  shown  at  Fig.  n,  and  fifteen-sixteenths  of 
one  diameter  on  the  tongue.     From  these  two  points 


J^.// 


•  OIAMETERI 


draw  a  diagonal,  and  the  length  of  this  diagonal  will 
be  the  length  or  stretch-out  of  the  circumference  nearly. 
If  it  is  desired  to  divide  a  board  or  other  substance 
into  any  given  number  of  equal  parts,  without  going 
through  the  process  of  calculation,  it  may  readily  be 
done  by  the  aid  of  the  square  or  even  a  pocket  rule. 
Let  AC,  BD,  Fig.  12,   be  the  width  of  the  board  or 


40 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


pther  material,  ami  this  width  is  seven  and  one-quarter 
inches,  and  we  wish  to  divide  it  into  eight  equal 
parts.  Lay  on  the  board  diagonally,  with  furthermost 
point  of  the  square  fair  with  one  edge,  and  the  mark 
8  on  the  square  on  the  other  edge;  then  prick  off  the 
mches,  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  and  7  as  shown,  and  these  points 
will  be  the  gauge  points  from  which  to  draw  the 
parallel  lines.  These  lines,  of  course,  will  be  some- 
thing less  than  one  inch  apart. 

If  the  board  should  be  more  than  eight  inches  wide, 
then  a  greater  length  of  the  square  may  be  used,  as 
for  instance,  if  the  board  is  ten  inches  wide,  and  we 
wish  to  divide  it   into  eight  equal   parts,  we  simply 
make  use  of  the  figure  12  on  the  square. instead  of  8. 
and  prick  off  the  spaces  every  one  and  a  half  inches 
on  the  square.     If  the  board  is  more  than   12  inches 
wide,  and  we  require  the  same  number  of  divisions,  we 
make  use  of  figure  16  on  the  square,  and  prick  off  at 
every  two  inch.  s.     Any  other  divisions  of  the  board 
may  be  obtained  in  a  like  manner,  varying  only  the 
use   of  the  figures  on  the  square   to  get  the  number 
of  divisions  required. 

As  a  number  of  problems  in  connection  with  actual 
work,  will  be  wrought  out  on  similar  lines  to  the  fore- 
going, further  on  in  this  book,  I  will  close  this  chapter 
in  order  to  give  as  much  space  as  possible  in  describ- 
ing the  ellipse  and  the  higher  curves. 


I 


CHAPTER    IV 

ELLIPSES,    SPIRALS,    AND   OTHER   CURVES 

The  ellipse,  next  to  the  circle,  is  the  curve  the  car- 
penter will  be  confronted  with  more  than  any  other, 
and  while  it  is  not  intended  to  discuss  all,  or  even  a 
major  part,  of  the  properties  and  characteristics  of 
this  curve,  I  will  endeavor  to  lay  before  the  reader 
all  in  connection  with  it  that  he  may  be  called  upon 
to  deal  with. 

According  to  geometricians,  an  ellipse  is  a  conic 
section  formed  by  cutting  a  cone  through  the  curved 
surface,  neither  parallel  to  the  base  nor  making  a 
subcontrary  section,  so  that  the  ellipse  like  the  circle 
is  a  curve  that  returns  within  itself,  and  completely 
encloses  a  space.  One  of  the  principal  and  useful 
properties  of  the  ellipse  is,  that  the  rectangle  under 
the  rwo  segments  of  a  diameter  is  as  the  square  of  the 
<  "e.     In  the   circle,    the  same  ratio  obtains,  but 

t.  tangle  under  the  two  segments  of  the  diameter 

becomes  equal  to  the  square  of  the  ordinate. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  we  enter  into  a  learned 
description  of  the  relations  of  the  ellipse  to  the  cone 
and  the  cylinder,  as  the  ordinary  carpenter  may  never 
have  any  practical  use  of  such  knowledge,  though,  if 
he  have  time  and  inclination,  such  knowledge  would 
avail  him  much  and  tend  to  broaden  his  ideas. 
Suffice  for  us  to  show  the  various  methods  by  which 
this  curve  may  be  obtained,  and  a  few  of  its  applica- 
tions to  actual  work. 

One  of  the  simplest  and  most  correct  methods  of 
describing  an  ellipse,  is  by  the  aid  of  two  pins,  a  string 

41 


T 


m 


i 

■V 


4t  MODERN  CARPENTRY 

and  a  lead-pencl.  as  shown  at  Fig.  i.  Let  FB  be  'he 
major  or  longest  axis  or  diameter,  and  DC  the  minor 
or  shorter  ax.s  or  d.ameter,  and  E  and  K  the  two  f^^ 


J 


.■    fi 


These  two  points  are  obtained  by  taking  the  half  of 

he    major  ax.s  AB  or  FA.  on   the  compasses,  and. 

standing  one  point  at  D.  cut  the  points  E  and  K  on  the 

as  shovt  T  L  ■"  •^""'^  '"''''  '""^  P'"^  -'  E  and  K 
and  Z;  I  •'  ''""^  "'  '''"^^"  ^y  the  dotted  lines 
and  t.e  to  the  p.ns  at  K,  then  stand  the  pencil  at  C 

D^nrVn- '"■'•';''  -T"^  ''  ""^  ""y  the  string  to  the 
p.n  E   holdmg  ,t  tight  and  winding  it  once  or  twice 
around  the  p.n   and  then  holding  the  string  with  the 
finger.  _  Run  the  pencil  around,  keeping  the  loop  of 
he  string  on  the  pencil  and  it  will  guide  the  latter  in 
the  formation  o    the  curve  as  shown.     When  one-half 
of  the  el  ipse  is  formed,  the  string  may  be  used  for  the 
other  half.  :ommeacing  the  curve  at  F  or  B.  as  the 
case  may  be.     This  is  commonly  called   "a  gardener's 
oval,      because  gardeners  make  use  of  it  for  forming 
ornamental  beds  for  flowers,  or  in  making  curves  fof 


CARPENTER'S    GEOMETRY 


43 


FCg.2. 


walks,  etc..  etc.  This  method  of  forming  the  curve, 
is  based  on  the  well-known  property  of  the  ellipse 
that  the  sum  of  any  two  lines  drawn  from  the  foci  to 
their  circumference 
is  the  same.  K^^  ^  ^ 

Another  method 
of  projectin}^  an 
ellipse  is  shown  at 
Fig.  2,  by  using  a 
trammel.  This  is  an 
instrument  consist- 
ing of  two  principal 
parts,  th':   fixed   part 

in  the  form  of  a  cross  as  CD,  AB,  and  the  movable 
tracer  HG.  The  fixed  piece  is  made  of  two  triangular 
bars  or  pieces  of  wood  of  equal  thickness,  joined 
together  so  as  to  be  in  the  same  plane.  On  one  side 
of  the  frame  when  made,  is  a  groove  forming  a  right- 
angled  cross;  the  groove  is  shown  in  the  section  at  E. 
In  this  groove,  two  studs  are  fitted  to  slide  easily,  the 
studs  having  a  section  same  as  shewn  at  F.  These  studs 
are  to  carry  the  tracer  and  guide  it  on  proper  lines. 
The  tracer  may  have  a  sliding  stud  on  the  end  to  carry 
a  lead-pencil,  or  it  may  have  a  number  of  small  holes 
passed  through  it  as  shown  in  the  cut,  to  carry  the 
pencil.  To  draw  an  ellipse  with  this  instrument,  we 
measure  off  half  the  distance  of  the  major  axis  from 
the  pencil  to  the  stud  G,  and  half  the  minor  axis  from 
the  pencil  point  to  the  stud  II,  then  swing  the  tracer 
round,  and  the  pencil  will  describe  the  ellipse  required. 
The  studs  have  little  projections  on  their  tops,  that  fit 
easily  into  the  holes  in  the  tracer,  but  this  may  be 
done  away  with,  and  two  brad  awls  or  pins  may  be 
thrust  through  the  tracer  and  into  the  studs,  and  then 


1  i 


44 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


proceed  with   the  work       With   »k-     • 

ellipse  may  easily  be  describ!^  "    '"^""^"*  ^ 

p  tuted  fur  the  instru- 

ment shown  in  Fig  2. 
Draw    the   line   AB, 
bisecting  it  at  right 
.8  angles,    draw    CD. 
i><-~t   off    these    lines 
the   required  dimen- 
sions of  the  ellipse  to 
be    drawn.      Place 

shown.     Lay  the  stramhf«^      .      ^"^^^'"^'"y  square  as 
as  shown  i  ^Fig  f  .fd   !  .f  '^"^^hw.se  of  the  figure, 
square,  place  the  Pe"  i  1  Tr"\  '  P'"  ''  ^  ''''"''  ''' 
with  the  one  of  t^e  fi' ^      n;\^';"' T^^"^ 
edge,  as  shown  in         ^  ^'^'  ""''''  ''''  ^^^^'S*^*- 

I'lg-    4.    crosswise 
of  the  figure,  and 
bring  the  pencil  F 
to    a     point    cor- 
responding to  one 
side  of  the  figure, 
and  set  a  pin  at  G. 
By    keeping     the 
two  pins  E  and  G 
against  the  square, 

frol"sId1"?o''L''"''''''^^  ^°  ''  ^°  ^^^"^  '^^  P--> 

tru^k       Bv  n       '  ^"t^"^'-^^'-  °f   the  figure  u^ll  be 

struck.     By  placing  the  square  in  the  same  relative 


CARPENTER'S   GEOMETRY 


45 


A  method, — and  one  that  is  very  useful  for  many 
purposes, — of  drawing  an  ellipse  approximately,  is 
shown  in  Fig  5.  It  is  conveiicnt  and  maybe  applied 
to  hundreds  of  purposes,  some  of  which  will  be  illus- 
trated as  V  _-  proceed. 
■Jo  apply  this  method, 
work  as  follows:  First 
lay  off  the  length  of 
the  required  figure,  as  /^ 
shown  by  AIJ,  Fig.  5, 
and  the  width  as  shown 
oy  CD.  Construct  a 
parallelogram  that  shall 
have  its  sides  tangent 
to  the  figure  at  the  points  of  its  length  and  width,  all 
as  shown  by  EFGII.  Subdivide  one-half  of  the  end 
of  the  parallelogram  into  any  convenient  number  of 
equal  parts,  as  shown  at  AE,  and  one-half  of  its  side 
in  the  same  manner,  as  shown  by  IlD.  Connect  these 
two  sets  of  points  by  intersecting  lines  in  the  manner 
shown  in  the  engraving.  Repeat  the  oper.  'on  for 
each  of  the  other  corners  of  the  parallelogiam.  A 
line  traced  through  the  inner  set  of  intersections  will 
be  a  very  close  approximation  to  an  ellipse. 

There  are  a  number  of  ways  of  describing  figures  that 
approximate  ellipses  by  using  the  compasses,  some  of 
them  being  a  near  approach  to  a  true  ellipse,  anfi  it  is 
well  that  the  workman  should  acquaint  himself  with 
the  methods  of  their  construction.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary that  a  few  examples  be  given  in  this  work,  as  a 
knowledge  of  these  shown  will  lead  the  way  to  the 
construction  of  others  when  required.  The  method 
exhibited  in  Fig.  6  is,  perhaps,  the  most  useful  of  any 
employed  by  workmen    than  all  other  mc^thods  cora- 


^1 


I 


46 

bined.     To  d 


MODERN    CARPENTRY 


oined.     To  describe  it,  layoff  the  length   rn       ^ 
nght  angles  to  it  and  bisectin.  iAJlTl  ^^:.:'»"^ 


at 


On  .he  larger  c,ra„,;;jru;;ViT;l''="f"    ^''• 
shorter  diameter  or  wid.h.'l.ljJt;  dF' DivLI 

remainder   of 


the 


i-.e 


'length  or  larger  diameter 
EC  into  three  equal  parts; 
with    two   of    these   parts 
as  a    radius,   and   R  as  a 
center,    strike    the    circle 
GSFT.     Then,  with   F  as 
«■*-  ^^^^j^:-^-  M         ^  '^^"ter  and  FG  as  radiu?, 
J't^.  6.       -^^  and  G  as  center  and  GF 

-u  .  as  radius,  strike  thf  arn=  ^. 

shown,  mtersecting  each   other  and  cuttiL  th^ r 
drawn  through  the  shorter  diameter  it  O  ^nH  P 

arc  LU,  and  with  P 

as  center    and  with 

like  radius,    or    PB 

which  is    the  same, 

strike  the    arc  KN. 

With    F  and   G    as 

centers,  and  with  FD 

and     CG  which  are  ^ 

the  same,  for  radii,  "^^.Z 

strike  the  arcs  NM  and  KL  respectivelv    fU 


m  ^JL__ 


JHfc 


CARPENTER'S  GEOMETRY 


47 


right  angles  to  BD  draw  the  line  CF  indefinitely;  then 
at  the  points  of  intersection  of  the  dotted  lines  will  be 
found  the  points  to  describ(  the  required  ellipse. 
A  method  of  describing 
an  ellipse  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  lines  is  shown  at 
Fi  J.  S,  ::nd  which  may  be 
applied  to  any  kind  of  an 
ellipse  with  longer  or 
shorter  axis.  Let  \VX  be 
the  given  major  a.xis,  and 
YA  the  minor  axis  drawn  at  right  angles  to  and  at  the 
center  of  each  other. 

Through  Y  parallel  to  WX  draw  ZT,  parallel  to  AY, 
draw  \VZ  and  XT;  divide  WZ  and  XT  into  any  number 
of  equal  parts,  say  four,  and  draw  lines  from  the  points 


/ 


^>^^    \     ^i       r r— 

■^^' 

of  division  000.  etc.,  to  Y.  Divide  \VS  and  XS  each 
into  the  same  numbc-r  of  equal  parts  as  WZ  and  XT, 
and  draw  lines  from  A  through  these  last  points  of 
division  intersecting  the  lines  drawn  from  OOO, 
etc.,  and  at  these  intersections  trace  the  semi-ellipse 
WYX.  The  other  half  of  the  ellipse  may  be  described 
in  the  same  manner. 


i 


,:!«!.. 


^»    ^r?-   V  iu- 


48 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


JJV\  ?"  '"'P^'   ^"■"'^   ^'^'«"   diameter,,    by 

drawn    thr.'".^  ^^'  ^*'^'-  ^'  ^'  ^'^^  ^'■^'^"  diameters, 
drawn    through   the    centers    of    each    other    at    an^ 

equ.red  .ngle      Draw  QV  and  PT  parallel   to   SN 
through  S  draw  TV  parallel  to  QP.     divide  into  any 
number  of  equal   parts  PT.   QV,   PO.  and  OQ;   then 
proceed  as  m  hig.  8.  and  the  work  is  complete 

An  ellipse  may  be  described  by  the  intersection  of 
arcs  as  at  iMg.  ,0.  Lay  off  IIG  and  JK  as  the  given 
axes;  then  find  the  foci  as  described  in  Fig.  ,.  Between 
L  and  L  and  the  center  M  mark  any  number  of  points 
at  pleasure  as   ,.  2,  3.  4.     Upon  L  and  L  with  Hi  for 

for  radlr^i       T  '■' ""'  '''  ^'  ^'  "l^^"  ^  and  with  Cl 
for  radius  describe  intersecting  arcs  at  O,  O.  O.  and 

C  K  r 


O;  then  these  points  of  intersection  will  be  in  the 
cur-.e  of  the  ellipse.  The  other  points  V  S  C  1 
^ound  .n  the  same  manner,  as  foUo'ws:  fI;  L'^poi; 
V  take  H2  for  one  radius,  and  G2  for  the  other  S  is 
found  by  taking  H3  for  one  radius,  and  G3  for  the 
other;  C  is  found  in  like  manner,  with  H4  for  one 
radius,  and  G4  for  the  last   radius,  using  the  foci  for 

To7sP%    T--  a  curve  through  th.  p:i.i:s 
n,  u.  V,  h,  C,  K,  etc.,  to  complete  the  ellipse 
It  frequently  happens  that  the  carpenter  has  to  make 


'W*..-'i:f: 


-r^'.H; 


r 


CARPENTER'S   GEOMETRY 


*9 


the  radial  linos  for  the  masons  to  get  their  arches  in 
proper  form,  as  well  as  making  the  centers  for  the 
same,  and,  as  i..e  obtaininf^  of  such  lines  for  elliptical 
work  is  very  tedious,  I  illustrate  a  device  that  may 
be  employed  that  will  obviate  a  yreat  deal  of  labor  in 
producing  such  lines.  The  instrument  and  the 
method  of  using  it  is  exhibited  at  Fig.  1 1  and  marked 
Ee.  The  semi-ellipse  HI,  or  xx,  may  be  described 
with  a  string  or  strings,  the  outer  line  being  described 
by  use  of  a  string  f£>  tened  to  the  foci  F  and  D,  with 
the  extreme  point  n  E;  and  the  inner  line,  with  the 
string  being  fastened  at  A  and  li,  with  the  pencil  point 
in  the  tightened  string  at  O.  The  sectional  line  LKJ 
shows  the  center  of  the  arch,  and  the  lines  SSS  are  at 


-r  1  •  1   1  1,1  1  1  1  1  1  M  r  ■ 

ETi 

r'  1     1     1     1    lV-^  1 

1             ii_^^    -. 

-L*^^l\ 

.'  1    I'J  '-vV"/^ 

I  !  Il  *\  •  V^       / 

J^V^   \ 

.I_L 

-Ca\^ 

right  angles  with  this  vertical  line.  The  usual  method 
of  finding  the  normal  by  geometry  is  shown  at  GABC, 
but  the  more  practical  method  of  finding  it  is  by  the 
use  of  the  instrument,  where  Ee  shows  the  normal. 
I  believe  the  device  is  of  French  origin,  and  I  give  a 
translation  of  a  description  and  use  of  the  instrument: 
"It  is  made  of  four  pieces  of  lath  or  metal  put  together 
so  as  t*"  form  a  perfect  rectangle  and  having  its  joints 
loose,  uo  shown  in  the  diagram.  Considering  that  the 
most  perfect  elliptical  cur^'e  is  that  described  by  a 
string  from  the  foci  (foyer)  of  the  ellipse,  draw  the 
profiles  of  the  extrados  and  intrados,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  II,  where  your  joints  are  to  be,  then  take  your 


50 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


string,  draw  it  to  the  point 
sides  of  your  instrument  to 


as  at  K,  adjust  two 


marked 
correspond  with  the  1 


of  the  string,  then,   from   the  point   marked,   d 


ines 


raw  a 


line 


passing 
through  the  two 
angles, E  and  e. 
and  the  line  Ee 
will  be  the  nor- 
ma! or  the  radial 
line  sought." 

The  oval  is 
not  an  ellipse, 
nor  are  any  of 
the  figures  ob- 
tained by  using 
the  compasses, 
as  no  part  of  an 
ellipse  is  a  cir- 
cle, though  it 
may  approach  closely  to  it.  The  oval  may  sometimes 
be  useful  to  the  carpenter,  and  it  may  be  well  to  illus- 
trate one  or  two  methods  by  which  these  figures  may 
be  described. 

Let  us  describe  a  diamon<i  or  lozenge-shaped  figure, 
such  as  shown  at  Fig  i.>,  and  then  trace  a  curve  inside 
of  It  as  shown,  touching  the  four  sides  of  the  figure 
and  a  beautiful  egg-shaped  curve  will  be  formed  For 
effect  we  may  elongate  ihe  lozenge  or  shorten  it  at 
will,  placing  the  short  diameter  at  anv  point.  This 
form  of  oval  is  much  used  by  turners 'and  lathe  men 
generally,  m  th<-  tormation  of  piUars.  balusters,  newel- 
posts  and  turned  ornamental  work  generally. 

An  egg-shaped  oval  may  also  be  hiscribed  in  a  figure 
having  two  unequal  but  parallel  sides,  both  of  which 


£ 


iMPgnw  y^ 


CARPENTER'S   GEOMETRY 


51 


are  bisected  by  the  same  I  inf.  perpendicular  to  both 
as  shown  in  Fig.  13.  Thtse  few  < A.itnplcs  art;  cjuite 
sufficitiit  to  satisfy  the  re<iiiireni«nts  of  the  workman, 
as  they  give  the  key  by  which  hi;  may  construct  any 
oval  he  may  ever  be  called  upon  to  form. 

I  have  dwelt  rather  lenj,'thily  on  the  subject  of  the 
ellipse  because  of  its  bein^,'  rather  difficult  for  the 
workman  to  dial  with,  .iiid  it  is  imet  he  should 
ac<juire  a  f.iir  knowled^,'e  of  tin;  methods  of  construct- 
ing it.  It  is  not  niv  |)rovince 
to  ent.-r  ■  *'>  all  the  ditaiis 
of  the  pr  es  of  this  very 

inte'  ,ecti.  ,  figure,  as  th(; 
vVci  iiian  can  find  many  of 
these  in  any  good  work  on 
mensuration,  if  he  shoulil  re- 
(}uire  more.  I  may  say  here, 
however,  that  geometricians 
so  far  have  failed  to  discover 

any  scientific  method  of  farming  parallel  ellipses,  so 
that  while  the  inside  or  outside  lines  of  an  elli[)se  can 
be  obtained  by  any  of  ilie  methods  1  have  given,  the 
parallel  line  must  be  obtained  either  by  gauging  the 
width  of  the  material  or  s[)ace  required,  or  must  be 
obtained  by  "pricking  off"  with  compassis  or  otht;r 
aid.  I  thought  it  best  to  mention  this  as  many  a 
young  man  has  spent  hours  in  trying  to  solve  the 
unsolvable  problem  when  using  the  pins,  pencil  and 
string. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  curves  the  carpenter 
will  sometimes  meet  in  daily  work,  chief  among  these 
being  the  scroll  or  spiral,  so  it  w'ill  he  well  for  him  to 
have  some  little  knowledge  of  its  structure.  A  true 
spiral  can  be  drawn  by  unwinding  a  piece  of  string  that 


/J/7/J. 


5» 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


has  been  wrapped  around  a  cone,  and  this  is  probably 
the  method  adopted  by  the  ancients  in  the  formation 
of  the  beautiful  Ionic  spirals  they  produced.     A  spiral 

drawn    by    this 
method     is 
shown    at    Fig. 
14.      This    was 
formed  by  using 
two  lead-pencils 
which  had  been 
sharpened      by 
one    of    those 
patent  sharpen- 
ers   and    which 
gave   them    the 
shape    seen    in 
^  ^  Fig.     15.       A 

' ^'^'^^""■'^.^.^^^^^^^'y^  piece  cf   string 

,•  ,  „  .  was    then    tied 

tightly  around   the  pencil,    and  one  end  was  wound 
round  the  conical  end.  so  as  to  lie  in  notches  made  in 
one  of   the   pencils;     the   point  of    a 
second  pencil  was  pierced  through  the 
string  at  a  convenient  point  near  the 
first   pencil,    completing   the    arrange- 
ment shown  in  Fig.  15.     To  draw  the 
spiral  the  pencils  must  be  kept  vertical 
the  point  of  the  first  being  held  firmly 
in    the   hole  of    the    spiral,    and   the 
second    pencil    must    then    be    carried 
around  the  first,  the  distance  between 
the^.two  increasing  regularly,  of  course,  as  the  string 

This    is  a    rough-and-ready  apparatus,   but   a   true 


2^ 


Fi^.  /5. 


m 


CARPENTERS   GEOMETRY 


S3 


I 


spiral  can  be  described  by  it  in  a  very  few  minutes. 

By  means  of  a  larger  cone,  spiral  •  of  any  size  can,  of 

course,  be  drawn,  and  that  portion  of  the  spiral  can  be 

used  which  conforms  to 

the  required  height. 
Another  similar 

method     is     shown    in 

Fig.    l6,    only    in    this 

case  the  string  unwinds 

from  a  sj)ool  on  a  fi.xcd 

center  A,  D,  B.     Make 

loop    E  in  the  end  of 

the    thread,     in    which 

place  a  pencil  as  shown. 

Hold  the  spcol    firmly 

and    move    the    pencil 

around     it,     unwinding 

the  thread.     A  curve  will  be  described,  as  shown  in 

the  lines.     It  is  evident  that  the  proportions  of  the 

figure  are  determined  by  the  size  of  the  spool.     Hence 

a  larger  or 
smaller  spool 
is  to  be  used, 
as  circum- 
stances require. 
A  simple 
method  of 
forming  a  figure 
that  corre- 
sponds    to    the 

spiral  somewhat,  is  shown  in  Fig.  17.     This  is  drawn 

from  two  centers  only,    a  and  e,  and  if  the  distance 

between  these  centers  is  not  too  yieat,  a  fairly  smooth 

appearance  will  be  given  to  the  figure.     The  method 


'r. 


if 

(A 

m 


i'A 

CI 


!|  I 


54 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


of  descriDing  is  simple.  Take  ai  as  radius  and 
describe  a  semi-circle;  then  take  ei  and  describe 
semi-circle  12  on  the  lower  side  of  the  line  AB.  Then 
with  a2  as  radius  describe  semi-circle  above  the  line; 
again,  with  e3  as  radius,  describe  semi-circle  below 
the  Ime  AB;  lastly  with  a3  as  rad.^s  describe  semi- 
circle above  the  line. 

In  the  spiral  shown  at  Fig.  18  we  have  one  drawn  in 
a  scientific   manner,    and    which   can   be   formed    to 

dimensions.      T  o 
draw    it,    proceed 
as    follows:      Let 
BA  be  the   given 
breadth,    and    the 
number  of  revolu- 
tions, say  one  and 
three-fourths;  now 
multiply  one  and 
three  -  fourths    by 
four,  which  equals 
seven;     to    which 
add    three,    the 
number  of  times  a 
side  of  a  square  is 
contained    in    the 
diameter    of    the 

„      XT        J-   .  eye.  making  ten  in 

all.  Now  divide  AB  into  ten  equal  parts  and  set  one 
from  A  to  D,  making  eleven  parts.  Divide  DB  into 
two  equal  parts  at  O,  then  OB  will  be  the  radius  of  the 
first  quarter  OF,  FE;  make  the  side  of  the  square,  as 
shown  at  GF,  equal  to  one  of  the  eleven  parts,  and 
divide  the  number  of  parts  obtained  by  multiplying 
the  revolutions  by  four,  which   is  seven;    make  the 


CARPENTER'S   GEOMETRY 


55 


diameter  of  the  eye,  12,  equal  to  three  of  the  eleven 
parts.  With  F  as  a  center  and  E  as  a  radius  make  the 
quarter  EO;  then,  with  G  as  a  center,  and  GO  as  a 
radius,  mark  the  quar- 
ter OJ.  Take  the  next 
center  at  H  and  HJL 
in  the  quarter;  so  keep 
on  for  centers,  drop- 
ping one  part  each 
time  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  angles.  Let 
EK  be  any  width  de- 
sired, and  carry  it 
around  on  the  same 
centers. 

Another  method  of 
obtaining  a  spiral  by 
arcs  of  circles  is  shown 
at  Fig.  19,  which  may 
be  confined  to  giver,  dimensions.  Proceed  as  follows: 
Draw  SM  and  LK  at  right  angles;  at  the  intersection 
of  these  lines  bisect  the  angles  by  the  lines  NO  and 
QP;  and  on  NO  a  d  QP  from  the  intersection  each 
way  set  off  three  equal  parts  as  shown.  On  I  as  center 
and  iH  as  radius,  describe  the  arc  HK,  on  2  describe 
the  arc  KM,  on  3  describe  the  arc  ML,  on  4  describe 
the  arc  LR.  The  fifth  center  to  describe  the  arc 
RT  is  under  i  on  the  line  QP;  and  so  proceed  to 
complete  the  curve. 

There  are  a  few  other  curves  that  may  occasionally 
prove  useful  to  the  workm.an,  and  I  submit  an  example 
or  two  of  each  in  order  that,  should  occasion  arise 
where  such  a  curve  or  curves  are  req^ired^  they  may  be 
met  with  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  of  the  subject. 


Fig  J  9. 


III 


1 

i 


s< 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


The  first  IS  the  parabola,  a  curve  sometimes  used  in 
bridge  work  or  similar  construction.  Two  examples 
of  the  curve  are  shown  at  Fig.  20,  and  the  methods  of 

describing  them. 
The  ufjper  one  is 
drawn  as  follows: 
I.  Draw  C8  per- 
pendicular to  AB, 
and  make  it  equal 
to  AD. 

Next,  join  A8 
and  B8,  and  divide 
-  both  lines  into  the 
same  number  of  equal  parts,  say  8;  number  them  as  in 
the  figure;  draw  i,  1-2,  2-3,  3,  etc.,  then  these  lines 
will  be  tangents  to  the  curve;  trace  the  curve  to  touch 
the  center  of  each  of  those  lines  between  the  points  of 
mtersection. 

The  lower  example  is  described  thus:  i.  Divide 
AD  and  BE,  into  any  number  of  equal  parts;  CD  and 
CE  into  a  similar  number. 

2.  Draw  1,  1-2,  2,  etc.,  parallel  to  AD,  and  from  the 
pomts  of  division  in  AD  and  BE.  draw  lines  to  C. 
The  points  of  intersection  of  the  respective  lines  are 
points  in  the  curve. 

The  curves  found,  as  in  these  figures,  are  quicker  at 
the  crown  than  a  tr-e  circular  segment;  but,  where  the 
rise  of  the  arch  is  not  more  than  one-tenth  of  the 
span,  the  variation  cannot  be  perceived. 

A  raking  example  of  this  curve  is  shown  in  Fig   21 
and  the  method  of  describing  it:     Let  AC  be  the  ordi- 
nate or  vertical  line,  and  DB  the  axis,  and  B  its  vertex- 
produce  the  axis  to  E,  and  make  BE  equal  to  DB;  join 
EC,  EA,  and  divide  them  each  into  the  same  number 


CARPENTER'S  GEOMETRY 


57 


of  equal  parts,  and  number  the  divisions  as  shown  on 
the  figures.  Join  the  corresponding  divisions  by  the 
lines  II,  22,  etc.,  and  their  intersections  will  produce 
the  contour  of 
the  curve. 

The  hyper- 
bola is  some- 
what similar  in 
appearance  t  o 
the  parabola  but 
it  has  properties 
peculiar  to  it- 
self. It  is  a 
figure  not  much 
used  in  carpen- 
try, but  it  may 
be  well  to  refer  to  it  briefly:     Suppose  there  be  two 

right  equal  cones,  Fig.  22,  hav- 
ing the  same  axis,  and  cut  by  a 
plane  Mm,  Nm,  parallel  to  that 
axis,  the  sections  MAN,  mna, 
which  result,  are  hyperbolas.  In 
place  of  two  cones  opposite  to 
each  other,  geometricians  some- 
times suppose  four  cones,  which 
join  on  the  lines  EH,  GB,  Fig. 
23,  and  of  which  axis  form  two 
right  lines,  Ff,  F'f,  crossing  the 
center  C  in  the  same  plane. 

To  describe   a   cycloid:     The 

cycloid  is  the  curve  described  by 

a  point  in  the  circumference  of  a 

circle  rolling  on  a  straight  line, 

Fl0.  22.  and  is  described  as  follows: 


■I' 


5!| 


1 1  ■ 


tt;«.'i 


S8 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


1.  Let  GH.  Fig.  24.  be  the  edge  of  a  straight  ruler 
and  C  the  center  of  the  generating  circle 

2.  Through  C  draw  the  diameter  AB  perpendicular 

to  GH,  and  EF  parallel  to 
GH;  then  AB  is  the  height 
of  the  curve,  and  EF  is  the 
place  of  the  center  of  the 
generating  circle  at  every 
point  of  its  progress. 

3-  Divide  the  semi-cir- 
cumference from  B  to  A 
into  any  number  of  equal 
parts,  say  8,  and  from  A 
draw  chords  to  the  points 
of  division. 

■       ..  4-    from  C,  with  a  <»na/-*» 

.n  he  d,v,ders  equal  ,o  one  of  .he  dil-isio  s  of  he 
c  rcle,  s.ep  off  „„  each  skle  >he  sam.  „„n,ber  of  .pace! 
as  .he  sem,.c,rcun,feronce  is  divide,!  inl„,  and  .hroujh 

slnTe  h'""  ^"'''"''"'""'  '"""^    number. het 
ds  in  tne  diagram. 

5-   From    the    points  of  division    in    EF   with   the 


iq»23' 


arcs 


Fiff.24. 


Ifshown  L'^TT'''"^  '■'■'''•  ^^^"'^^  '"definite 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  linos 

fooi  l^)"  '^a"  '^""u  ^'  '"  ''''  ^''^''d^^^'  ^"d  with  the 
foot  at  ,  and  i  on  the  line  GH.  cut  the  indefinite  arcs 


fltnraii—iinrii.. 


CARPENTER'S  GEOMETRY 


59 


described  from  l  and  i  respectively  at  D  and  D',  then 
D  and  D'  are  points  in  the  curve. 

7,  With  the  chord  A2,  from  2  and  2  in  GH,  cut  the 
indefinite  arcs  in  J  and  J',  w^ith  the  chord  A3,  from  3 
and  3,  cut  the  arcs  in  K  and  K'  and  apply  the  other 
chords  in  the  same  manner,  cutting  the  arcs  in  LM, 
etc. 

8.  Through  the  points  so  found  trace  the  curve. 


•■•■i» 
I 


Fig.Bf} 


m 


Each  of  the  indefinite  arcs  in  the  diagram  represents 
the  circle  at  that  point  of  its  revolution,  and  the  points 
DJ,K,  etc.,  tho  position  of  the  generating  point  B  at 
each  place.  This  curve  is  frequently  used  for  the 
arches  of  bridges,  its  proportions  are  always  constant, 
viz.:  the  span  is  equal  to  the  circumference  of  the 
generating  circle  and  the  rise  equal  o  the  diameter, 
Cycloidai  arches  are  freq  lently  constructed  which  are 


6o 


MODERN   CARPENTRV 


not  true  cycloids,  but  approach  that  curve  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree. 

The  epicycloidal  curve  is  formed  by  the  revolution 
of  a  circle  round  a  circle,  either  within  or  without  its 
circumference,  and  described  by  a  point  B,  Fig  25  in 
the  circumference  of  the  revolving  circle,  and  Q  of  the 
stationary  circle. 

The  method  of  finding  the  points  in  the  curve  is  here 
given: 

1.  Drr  w  the  diameter  8.  8  and  from  Q  the  center, 
draw  QB  at  right  angles  to  8,  8. 

2.  With  the  distance  QP  from  Q,  describe  an  arc  O 
O  representing  the  position  of  the  center  P  throughout 
Its  entire  progress. 

3-  Divide  the  semi-circle  BD  and  the  quadrants  D8 
into    the    same  number  of  equal   parts,   draw  chords 
irom  D  to  I,  2.  3,  etc.,  and  from  O  draw  lines  through 
the  divisions  in  D8  to  intersect  the  curve  OO  in  I 
2.  3.  etc.  ' 

4.  VVith  the  radius  c'  "  from  i,  2,  3,  etc.,  in  00, 
describe  indefinite  arcs;  apply  the  chords  Di,  D'    -tc 
from^  I,  2,  3,  etc.,  in  the  circumference  of  Q,  cutting 
the  indefinite  arcs  in  A.C.E.F,  etc.,  which  are  points 
in  the  curve. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  undertake  actual  work 
and  in  the  next  chapter,  I  will  endeavor  to  apply  a  part 
of  what  has  preceded  to  practical  examples,  such  as 
are  required  for  everyday  use.     Enough  geometry  has 
been  given  to  enable  the  workman,  when  he  has  mas- 
tered it  all,  to  lay  out  any  geometrical  figure  he  may  be 
called  upon  to  execute;  and  with,  perhaps,  the  excep- 
tion  of  circular  and  elliptical  stairs  and  hand-railings 
which  require  a  separate  study,  by  what  has  been  for- 
mulated and  what  will  follow,  he  should  be  able  to  exe- 
cute almost  any  work  in  a  scientific  manner,  that  may 
be  placed  under  his  control. 


■ 


PART  II 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 
CHAPTER   I 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  undertake  the  solution 
of  practical  examples,  and  I  will  commence  this 
department  by  offering  a  few  practical  solutions  that 
will  bring  into  use  some  of  the  work  already  known  to 
the  student,  if  he  has  followed  closely  what  has  been 
presented. 

It  is  a  part  of  the  carpenter's  duty  to  lay  out  and 
construct  all  the  wooden  centers  required  by  the  brick- 
layer and  mason  for  turning  arches  over  openings  of 
all  kinds:  therefore,  it  is  essential  he  should  know  as 
much  concerning  arches  as  will  enable  him  to  attack 
the  problems  with  intelligence.  I  have  said  some- 
thing of  arches,  in  Part  I,  but  not  sufficient  to  satisfy 
all  the  needs  of  the  carpenter,  so  I  supplement  with 
the  following  on  the  same  subject:  Arches  used  in 
building  are  named  according  to  their  curves, — cir- 
cular, elliptic,  cycloid,  parabolic,  hyperbolic,  etc. 
Arches  are  also  known  as  three  or  four  centered  arches. 
Pointed  arches  are  ca'led  lancet,  equilateral  and 
depressed.  V'oussoirs  is  the  name  given  to  the  stones 
forming  the  arch;  the  central  stone  is  called  the  key- 
stone. The  highest  point  in  an  arch  is  called  the 
crown,  the  lowest  the  springing  line,  and  the  spaces 
between  the  crown  and  springing  line  on  either  sidi?, 
the  haunches  or  flanks.     The  under,  or  concave,  sur- 

6Z 


6a 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


face  of  an  arch  is  c£  .ed  the  intrados  or  soffit,  the 
upper  or  convex  surface  is  called  the  extrados.  The 
span  of  an  arch  is  the  width  of  the  opening.  The 
supports  of  an  arch  are  called  abutments,  piers,  or 


^>V>r:4. 


\    Fig.  2    /' 


\/ 

W 

springing  walls.  This  applies  to  the  centers  of  wood, 
as  well  as  to  brick,  stone  or  cement.  The  following 
SIX  illustrations  show  the  manner  of  getting  the  curves 
as  well  as  obtaining  the  radiating  lines,  which,  as  a 
rule,  the  carpenter  will  be  asked  to  prepare  for  the 
mason.     We  take  them  in  the  fol. owing  order: 

Pig.  1.     A  Semi-circular  Arch.-RQ  is  the  span,  and 
the  line  RQ  is  the  springing  line;   S  is  *Pr  center  from 


Fig.  3. 


whic    the  arch  is  described,  and  to  which  all  joints  of 
the  voussoirs  tend.     T  is  the  keystone  of  the  arch 

Kg.  2.     A    Segment    Arch.-U   is   the    center    from 
which  the  arch  is  described,  and  from  U  radiate  all 


mSSSSHi 


PRACTICAL  EXAMPLES 


«3 


the  joints  of  the  arch  stones.  The  bed  line  of  the 
arch  OP  or  MN  is  called  by  mason  builders  a  skew- 
back.  OM  is  the  span,  and  VW  is  the  height  or 
versed  sine  of  the  segment  arch. 

Figi.  3  and  4.  Mooriih  or  Sanosnio  Arches,  one  of 
which  is  pointed.  Fig.  3  is  sometimes  called  the 
horseshoe  arch.  The  springing 
lines  DC  and  ZX  of  both  arches 
are  below  the  centers  BA  and  Y. 
¥lK.  6.  A  Form  uf  Llutol 
Called  a  Platband,  1  uilt  in  this  funn  as  a  .substii^ite 
for  11  sfynu'iit  arch  over  the  opening  of  doors  or  windows, 
generally  of  brick,  wedge-shaped. 

Fig.  6.    The  Elliptic  Arch.— This  arch    is   most  per- 
fect when  described  with  the  trammel,  and  in  that  case 


r  Fig.  5    I 


the  joints  of  the  arch  stones  are  found  as  follows:  Let 
ZZ  be  the  foci,  and  B  a  point  on  the  intrados  where  a 
joint  is  required;  from  ZZ  draw  lines  to  B,  bisect  the 
angle  at  B  by  a  line  drawn  through  the  intersecting 
arcs  D  produced  for  the  joint  to  F.     Joints  at  I  and  2 


64 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


are  nmd  !n  the  same  manner.  The  joints  for  the 
opp<>.  iu  ide  of  the  arch  may  be  transferred  as  shown. 
The  SM.  I  .xes  of  the  ellipse,  HG,  GK,  arc  inthe  same 
ratio  a.s  GiC  to  GA.     The  voussoirs  near  the  springing 


line  ..f  ^the  .ir-L  are  thus  increased  in  size  for  greater 
strength.  I  gave  a  very  good  description  of  this 
latter  arch  in  Part  I,  which  see. 

Another  series  of  arches,  known  as  Gothic  arches 
are  shown  as  follows,  with  all  the  centers  of  the  curve 
given,  so  that  their  formation  is  rendered  quite  simple. 
The  arch  shown  at  Fig.  7  is  equilateral  and  its  out- 
lin<  s  have  been  shown  before.  I  repeat,  h  wever,  let 
AB  be  the  given  span;  on  A  and  B  as  centers  with 
Ali  as  radius,  describe  the  arcs  AC  and  BC. 

The  lancet  arch.  Fig.  8.  is  drawn  as  follows:  DF  is 
the  given  span;  bisect  DE  in  J,  make  IJF  and  EG 
equal  DJ;   on  F  as  center  with  FE  as  radius  descr,  je 


^  |T    "^      W       ^    -gi 

Fig.  10        I 

the  arc  EH,  and  on  G  as  center  describe  the  n     DH. 
A  lancet  arch,  not  bu  acute  as  the  previous  vuc,  is 


\mm  rf^imTi 


PRACTICAL  EXAMPLES 


jhown  at  Fig.  g.  Let  KL  be  the  given  span;  bisect 
KL  in  M,  make  MP  at  right  angles  to  KL  and  of  the 
required  height;  connect  LP,  bisect  LP  by  a  line 
through  the  arcs  R,  Q  produced  to  N;  make  MO  equal 
MN;  with  N  and  O  as  centers,  with  NL  for  radius 
describe  the  arcs  KP  and  LP.  Fig.  lo  shows  a  low 
or  drop  arch,  and  is  obtained  as  follows:  Let  ST  be 
the  given  span,  bisect  ST  in  \\  ,  let  WX  be  the 
required  height  at  right  angles  to  TS;  connf'ct  TX, 


bisect  TX  by  a  line  throigh  the  aiv  VZ  produce*^  a 
V,  make  TU  equal  SV;  n  V  md  L  as  centers  with 
VT  as  radius  describe  the  arcs  TX  and  '.  Another 
Gothic  arch  with  a  sti'.i  less  height  is  -  vvn  at  Fig. 
11.  Suppose  AB  to  be  the  givrMi  spar  then  divide 
AB  in  J  four  equal  parts;  mal  :  AF  a  J  BG  equal 
AB,  connect  l^'E  an  J  p  )ducc  c  L;  w  :h  C.\  as  radiui->, 
on  C  and  E,  describe  th<;  an  AD  and  BK,  on  F  and 
G  as  centers,  descr'be  t^    ar     JK  and  DK. 

Aiiother  fcur-centerec  i  h  ot  less  height  is  shown 
at  Fig.  12.  Let  SI  ho  the  given  span,  divide  into  six 
equal  parts;  on  R  mi.  Q  a  C'  .iters  with  RQ  as  radius 
desrnbe  the  arcs  UV  u  id  AW,  connect  QV  and  RV  and 
l^roduce  toL  and  ?   ,  i  a  R  and  Q  as  centers  with  QT  as 


66 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


radius  describe  the  arcs  TP  and  SO;   on  L  and  M  as 
centers  describe  the  arcs  PN  and  ON. 

To  describe  an  equilateral  Ogee  arch,  like  Fig.  13, 
proceed  as  follows:    Make  YZ  the  given  span;   make 


Fig.  13 


YX  equal  YZ,  bisect  YZ  in  A;  on  A  as  center  with 
AY  as  radius  describe  the  arcs  YB  and  ZC;  on  B  and 
X  as  centers  describe  the  arcs  BD  and  XD,  and  on  C 
and  X  as  centers  describe  the  arcs  CE  and  XE,  on  E 
and  D  as  centers  describe  the  arcs  BX  and  CX. 

Fig.  14  shows  the  method  of  obtaining  the  lines  for 
an  Ogee  arch,  having  -.  height  equal  to  half  the  span. 
Suppose  FH  to  be  the  span,  divide  into  four  equal 
parts,  and  at  each  of  the  points  of  division  draw  lines 
LN,  KG  and  JO  at  right  angles  to  FH;  with  LF  for 
radius  on  L  and  J  describe  the  quarter  circles  FM  and 
HP;  and  with  the  same  radius  on  O  and  N  describe 
the  quarter  circles  PG  and  MG. 

These  examples— all  or  any  of  them — can  be  made  use 
of  in  a  great  number  of  instances.  Half  of  the  Ogee 
curve  is  often  employed  for  veranda  rafters,  as  for  the 
roofs  of  bay-windows,  for  tower  roofs  and  for  bell 
bases,  for  oriel  and  bay-windows,  and  many  oHier 
pieces  of  work  the  carpenter  will  be  confronted  with 
from  time  to  time.  They  also  have  value  as  aids  in 
forming  mouldings  and  other  ornamental  work,  as  for 


HHWIIU.J— ■WMitlilfc.i 


PRACTICAL  EXAMPLES 


«7 


example  Fig.  15,  which  shows  a  moulding  for  a  base 
or  other  like  purpose.  It  is  described  as  follows: 
Draw  AB;  divide  it  into  five 
equal  parts;  make  CD  equal  to 
four  of  these.  Through  D  draw 
DF  parallel  with  AB.  From  D, 
with  DC  as  radius,  draw  the  arc 
CE.  Make  EF  equal  to  DE;  di- 
vide EF  into  five  parts;  make  the 
line  above  F  equal  to  one  of  these; 
draw  EG  equal  to  si.x  of  these. 
From  G,  with  radius  DE,  describe 
the  arc;  bisect  GF,  and  lay  the 
distance  to  H.  It  is  the  center  of 
the  curve,  meeting  the  semi-circle 
-iescribed  from  M.  Join  NO,  OS, 
and  the  moulding  is  complete. 

The  two  illustrations  shown  at 
Figs.  16  and  17  will  give  the  stu- 
dent an  idea  of  the  manner  in 
which  he  can  apply  the  knowledge  he  has  now  obtained, 
and  =t  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  say  that  with  a  little 
ingenuity  he  can  form  almost  any  sort  of  an  ornament 
he  wishes  by  using  this  knowledge.  The  two  illustra- 
tions require  no  explanation  as  their  formation  is  self- 
evident.  Newel  posts,  balusters,  pedestals  and  other 
turned  or  wrought  ornaments,  maybe  designed  easily 
if  a  little  thought  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  subject. 

The  steel  square  is  a  great  aid  in  working  out  prob- 
lems in  carpentry,  and  I  will  endeavor  to  show,  as 
briefly  as  possible,  how  the  square  can  be  applied  to 
some  difificult  problems,  and   insure  correct  solutions. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  give  a  full  and  complete  descrip- 
tion of  the  steel  square.     Every  carpenter  and  joiner  is 


M 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


supposed  to  be  the  possessor  of  one  of  these  useful 
tools,  and  to  have  some  knowledge  of  using  it.  It  is 
not  e«^eryone,  however,  who  thoroughly  understands 
its  powers  or  knows  how  to  employ  it  in  solving  all 


the  difficulties  of  framing,  or  to  take  advantage  of  its 
capabilities  in  laying  out  work.  While  it  is  not  my 
intention  to  go  deepiy  into  this  subject  in  this  vol- 
ume, as  that  would  lengthen  it  out  to  unreasonable 
limits,  so  it  must  be  left  for  a  separate  work,  yet  there 
are  some  simple  things  connected  with  the  steel  square, 
that  I  think  every  carpenter  and  joiner  should  know, 
no  matter  whether  he  intends  to  go  deeper  into  the 
study  of  the  steel  square  or  not.  One  of  these  things 
is  the  learning  to  read  the  tool.    Strange  as  ii  may 


PRACTICAL  EXAMPLES 


69 


appear,  not  over  one  in  fifty  of  those  who  use  the 
square  are  able  to  read  it,  or  in  other  words,  able  to 
explain  the  meaning  and  uses  of  the  figures  stamped 
on  its  two  sides.  The  following  will  assist  the  young 
fellows  who  want  to  master  the  subject. 

The  square  consists  of  two  arms,  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  one  of  which  is  called  the  blade  and  which 
is  two  feet  long,  and  generally  two  inches  wide.  The 
other  arm  is  called  the  tongue,  and  may  be  any 
length  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches,  and  i^  to 
2  inches  in  width.  The  best  square  has  always  a 
blade  2  inches  wide.  Squares  made  by  firms  of  repute 
are  generally  perfect  and  require  no  adjusting  or 
"squaring." 

The  lines  and  figures  formed  on  squares  of  different 
make  sometimes  vary,  both  as  to  their  position  on  the 
square  and  their  mode  of  application,  but  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  application  of  the  scales  and 
lines  shown  on  any  first-class  tool,  will  enable  the  stu- 
dent to  comprehend  the  use  of  the  lines  and  figures 
exhibited  on  any  good  square. 

It  is  supposed  the  reader  understands  the  ordinary 
divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  foot  and  inch  into 
twelfths,  inches,  halves,  quarter^,  eighths  and  six- 
teenths, and  that  he  also  understands  how  to  use  that 
part  of  the  square  that  is  subdivided  into  twelfths  of 
an  inch.  This  being  conceded,  we  now  proceed  to 
describe  the  various  rules  as  shown  on  all  good  squares. 
Sometimes  the  inch  is  subdivided  into  thirty-seconds, 
in  which  tha  subdivision  is  very  fine,  but  this  scale 
will  be  found  very  convenient  in  the  measure- 
ment of  drawings  which  are  made  to  a  scale  of 
half,  quarter,  one-eighth  or  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
to  a  foot. 


HiaHiLi 


70 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


Pjll|ll|ll|l|ll||llj||j|l|||||||||ji! 


In  the  illustration  Fig. 
l8,  will  be  noticed  a  series 
of  lines  extending  from 
the  junction  of  the  blade 
and  tongue  to  the  four- 
inch  limit.  From  the 
figures  2  to  3  these  lines 
are  crossed  by  diagonal 
lines.  This  figure,  reach- 
ing from  2  to  4,  is  called 
a  diagonal  scale,  and  is 
mtended  for  taking  off  hundredths  of  an  inch      The 


TTOTDTTTMnnTp 


lengths  of  the  lines  between  the 
diagonal  and  the  perpendicular 
are  marked  on  the  latter.  Primary 
divisions  are  tenths,  and  the  junc- 
tion of  the  diagonal  lines  with  the 
longitudinal  parallel  lines  enables 
the  operator  to  obtain  divisions  of 
one-hundredth  part  of  an  inch;  as 
for  example,  if  we  wish  to  obtain 
twenty-four  hundredths  we  operate 
on  the  seventh  line,  taking  five 
primaries  and  the  fraction  of  the 
sixth  where  the  diagonal  inter- 
sects the  parallel  line,  as  shown 


PRACTICAL  EXAMPLES 


7» 


by  the  "dots"  on  the  compasses,  and  this  gives  us  the 
distance  required. 

The  use  of  the  scale  is  obvious,  and  needs  no  furtner 
exf)lanation,  as  the  dots  or  points  are  shown. 

The  lines  of  figures  running  across  the  blade  of  the 
square,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19,  forms  what  is  a  very  con- 
venient rule  for  determining  the  amount  of  material  in 
length  or  width  of  stuff.     To  use  it  proceed  as  fol- 
lows:    If  we  examine  we  will  find  under  the  figure  12, 
on  the  outer  edge  of  the  blade,  where  the  length  of  the 
boards,  plank  or  scantling  to  be  measured  is  given, 
and  the  answer  in  feet  and  inches  is  found  under  the 
inches  in  width  that  the  board,  etc.,  measures.     For 
example,  take  a  board  nine  feet  long  and  five  inches 
wide,  then  under  the  figure   12,   on  the  second   line, 
will  be  found  the  figure  9,  which  is  the  length  of  the 
board;   then  run  along  this  line  to  the  figure  directly 
under  the  five  inches  (the  width  of  the  board)  and  we 
find  three  feet  nine  inches,  which  is  the  correct  answer 
in  '  board  measure."     If  the  stuff  is  three  inches  thick 
it  is  trebled,  etc.,  etc.     'f  the  stuff  is  longer  than  any 
figures  shown  on  the  square  it  can   be  measured  as 
above   and    doubling   the   result.     This   rule  is  calcu- 
lated, as  its  name  indicates,  for  board  meas  ire,  or  for 
surfaces  I  inch  in  thickness.     It  may  be  advantage' ^isly 
used,  however,  upon  timber  by  multiplying  the       suit 
tf  the  lace  measure  ot  one  side  of  a  piece  by  its  <.,  pth 
i.i   inches.     To  illustrate,   suppose   it   be  required  to 
measure  a  piece  25  feet  long,    10x14  inches  in  size. 
For  the  length  we  will  take  12  and  13  feet.     For  the 
width  we  will  take   10  inches,  and  multiply  the  result 
by  14.     By  the  rule  a  board  12  feet  lung  and  10  inches 
wide  contains   10  feet,  and  one   13  feet  long  and   lO 
inches  wide,  10  feet  10  inches.     Therefore,  a  board  25 
ket  long  and  10  inches  wide  must  contain  20  feet  and 


II 


7»  MODERN  CARPENTRY 

10  inches.  In  the  timber  above  described,  however, 
we  have  what  is  equivalent  to  14  such  boards,  and 
therefore  we  multiply  this  result  by  14,  which  gives 
291  feet  and  8  inches  the  board  measure. 

Along  the  tongue  of  the  square  following  the  diag- 
onal scale  is  the  brace  rule,  which  Is  a  very  simple  and 
very  convenient  method  of  determining  the  length  of 
any  brace  of  regular  run.  The  length  of  any  brace 
simply  represents  the  hypothcnuse  of  a  right-angled 
triangle.  To  find  the  hypothenuse  extract  the  square 
root  of  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  perpendicular 
and  horizontal  runs.  For  instance,  if  6  feet  is  the 
horizontal  run  and  8  feet  the  perpendicular,  6  squared 
equals  36,  8  squared  equals  64;  36  plus  64  equals  100, 
the  square  root  of  which  is  10.  These  are  the  rules 
generally  used  for  squaring  the  frame  of  a  building. 

If  the  run  is  42  inches,  42  squared  is  1764,  double 
that  amount,  both  sides  being  equal,  gives  3528,  the 
square  root  of  which  is,  in  feet  and  inches,  4  feet  11.40 
inches. 

In  cutting  braces  always  allow  in  length  from  a  six- 
teenth  to  an  eighth  of  an  inch  more  than  the  exact 
measurement  calls  for. 

Directly  under  the  half-inch  marks  on  the  outer  edge 
of  the  back  of  the  tongue.  Fig.  19,  will  be  noticed  two 
figures,  one  above  the  other.  These  represent  the  run 
of  the  brace,  or  the  length  of  two  sides  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle;  the  figures  immediately  to  the  right 
represent  the  length  of  the  brace  or  the  hypothenuse. 
For  instance,  the  figures  I],  and  80.61  show  that  the  run 
on  the  post  and  beam  is  57  inches,  and  the  length  of  the 
brace  is  80.61  inches. 

Upon  some  squares  will  be  found  brace  measure- 
ments given,  where  the  run  is  not  equal,  as  }f.3o.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  last  set  of  figures  are  each  just 


. 


PRACTICAL  EXAMPLES 


79 


, 


three  times  those  mentioned  in  the  set  that  are  usually 

used  in  squaring  a  building.      So  if  the  student  or 

mechanic   will  fix 

in    his    mind   the 

measurements  of  a 

few  runs,  with  the 

length  of  braces, 

he  can  readily 

work    almost  any 

length  required. 

Take  a  run,  for 
instance,  of  9 
inches  on  the 
beam  and  12 
inches  on  the  post. 
The  1  e  n  gt  h  of 
brace  is  15  inches.  In  a  run,  therefore,  of  12,  16,  20,  or 
any  number  of  times  above  the  figures,  the  length  of 
the  brace  will  bear  the  same  proportion  to  the  run  as 
the  multiple  used.  Thus  if  you  multiply  all  the  fig- 
ures by  3  you  will  have  36  and  48  inches  for  the  run, 
and  60  inches  for  the  brace,  or  to  remember  still  more 
easily,  3,  4  and  5  feet. 

There  is  still  another  and  an  easier  method  of  obtain- 
ing the  lengths  of  braces  by  aid  of  the  square,  also  the 
bevels  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  20,  where  the  run  is  3 
feet,  or  36  inches,  as  marked.  The  length  and  bevels 
of  the  brace  are  found  by  applying  the  square  three 
times  in  the  position  as  shown;  placing  12  and  12  on 
the  edge  of  the  timber  each  time.  By  this  method 
both  length  and  bevel  are  obtained  with  the  least 
amount  of  labor.  Braces  having  irregular  runs  may 
be  oberated  in  the  same  manner.  For  instance,  sup- 
pose we  wish  to  set  in  a  brace  where  the  run  is  4 
feet  and   3   feet;    we   simply   take  9   inches   on    the 


74 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


Fig.^l, 


tongue   and   12   inches  on   the  blade   and   apply  the 

S(|uare  four  times,  as  shown  In 
Fig.  21,  where  the  brace  is 
given  in  position.  Here  we 
get  both  the  proper  length  and 
the  exact  bevels.  It  is  evident 
from  this  that  braces,  regular 
or  irregular,  and  of  any  length, 
may  be  obtained  with  bevels  for 
same  by  this  method,  only  care 
must  be  taken  in  adopting  the 
figures  for  the  purpose. 

If  we  want  a  brace  with  a  two- 
toot  run  and  a  four-foot  run,  it  must  be  evident  that 
as  two  IS  the  half  of  four,  so  on  the  square  take  12 
inches  on  the  tongue,  and  6  inches  on  the  blade,  apply 
four  times  and  we  have  the  length  and  the  bevels  of  a 
brace  for  this  run. 

For  a  three-by-four  foot  run  take  12  inches  on  the 
tongue  and  9  inches  „n  the  blade,  and  apply  four 
times,  because  as  3  feet  is  %  of  four  feet,  so  9  inches 
IS  %  of  12  inches. 

While  on  the  subject  of  braces  I  submit  the  follow- 
ing table  for  determining  the  length  of  braces  for  any 
run  from  six  inches  to  fourteen  feet.     This  table  has 
been  carefully  prepared  and  may  be  depended  upon  as 
giving  correct   measurements.      Where    the    runs   are 
regular  or  equal  the  b  vel   will  always  be  a  miter  or 
angle  of  45 ^  providing  always   the  angle   which   the 
brace  is  to  occupy  is  a  right  angle— a  "s-    ^re  "     If 
the  run   is  not  equal,   or  the  angle  not  a  n   nt  angle, 
then  the  bevels  or  "cuts"  will  not  be  miters,  and  wilt 
have  to  be   obtained  either  by  taking  figures  on  the 
square  or  by  a  scaled  diagram. 


m:>-*aslf^Mik'ai  •?*<  •?'-*<■ ' 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


7S 


TABLE 


LCHUTR 

or 

Lknoth  or 

LCNdTF 

I  or 

1 

Lbngtr  or 

itUN 

tJHAlB 

KUM 

Bbacb 

n.  in. 

n.  In. 

n.     iQ. 

ft.    111. 

ft.  Jn. 

ft.      In. 

6  X 

6  = 

8.48 

4  3  X 

4  3   = 

6    0.12 

6  X 

9  = 

10.81 

4  3  X 

46- 

6    2.27 

9  X 

9  = 

I    0.72 

4  3  X 

4^- 

6    4  49 

I  0  X 

I  0  = 

I     497 

4  3  X 

5  0  - 

6    6.74 

I  0  X 

I  3  = 

I    7.20 

4  6  X 

46  - 

6    436 

I  3  X 

I  3  = 

I  923 

4  6  X 

4  9  = 

6    6.51 

I  3  X 

I  6  = 

I  n-43 

4  6  X 

5  0  - 

6    8.72 

I  6  X 

1  6  = 

2     1.45 

4  9   X 

4  9  = 

6    8.61 

I  6  X 

I  9  = 

2    365 

4  9  X 

5  0  = 

6  10.75 

I  9  X 

I  q  = 

2    5.69 

5  0  X 

5  0  = 

7    085 

I  9  X 

2  0  = 

2    789 

5  3  X 

5  3  = 

7    509 

2  0   X 

2  0  = 

2    9-94 

5  6  X 

56  = 

7    9-33 

2  0  X 

23   = 

3    0.12 

5  9  X 

5  9  = 

8    1.58 

2   0   X 

26  = 

3     2.41 

6  0  X 

60  = 

8    5.82 

2   3   X 

26  = 

3    4-36 

6  3  X 

63  = 

8  10.06 

2  6   X 

26  = 

3    6.42 

6  6  X 

6  6  = 

9    2.30 

2  6  X 

29  = 

3    8.59 

6  9  X 

69  = 

9    6.55 

2  9  X 

29  = 

3  10.66 

7  0  X 

70  = 

9  10.79 

2  9  X 

30  = 

4     0.83 

7  3  X 

7  3  = 

10    303 

3  0  X 

30  = 

4      2^1 

7  6  X 

76  = 

10    7.28 

3  0  X 

3  3  = 

4     5-02 

7  9  X 

7  9  = 

10  11.52 

3  0  X 

36  = 

4    7-31 

8  0  X 

80  = 

II    376 

3  0  X 

3  9  = 

4    962 

8  3  X 

83  = 

II    8.00 

3  3  X 

3  3  = 

4    7-15 

8  6  X 

8  6  = 

12    0.24 

3  3  X 

36  = 

4    931 

8  9  X 

89  = 

12    4.49 

3  3  X 

3  9  = 

4  n.54 

9  0  X 

90  = 

12    8.73 

3  3  X 

40  = 

5     1-84 

9  6  X 

96  = 

13    5.22 

3  6  X 

36  = 

4  11.39 

10  0  X 

10  0  = 

14    1.70 

3  6  X 

3  9  = 

5     1.55 

10  6  X 

10  6  = 

14  10.19 

3  6  X 

40  = 

5    3-78 

II  0  X 

II  0  = 

15    6.67 

3  9  X 

3  9  = 

5    363 

II  6  X 

116  = 

16    3.16 

3  9  X 

40  = 

5    5-79 

12   0   X 

12  0  = 

16  11.64 

4  0  X 

40  = 

5    7.88 

12  6  X 

12  6  = 

17    8.13 

4  0  X 

4  3  = 

5  10.03 

13  0  X 

13  0  = 

18    461 

4  0  X 

46  = 

6    0.25 

13  6  X 

13  6  = 

19     1. 10 

40  X 

4  9  = 

6    2.51 

C4  0  X 

14  0  = 

19    9.58 

40  X 

5  0  = 

6    4-83 

76 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


EXE 


^? 


'   *  t.  >  .  i'Wi«n   .  J   .   .   ,   ,   ."T 


n  1 1 1 J 1 1 1 1 


%,  22i 


S 


There  is  on  the 
tongue  of  the  square 
a  scale  called  the 
"octagonal  scale." 
This  is  generally  on 
.  the  opposite  side  to 

the  scales  shown  on  Fig.  19.     Fig.  22  exhibits  a  por- 
tion of  the  tongue  on  which  this  scale  is  shown.     It  is 
the  central  division  on  which  the  number  10 
is  seen  along  with  a  number  of  divisions. 
It  is  used  in  this  way:    If  you  have  a  stick 
10  inches  square  which  you  wish  to  dress  up 
octagonal,   make  a   center  mark  on    each 
face,  then  with  the  compasses,  take  10  of  the 
spaces  marked  by  the  short  cross-lines  in  the 
middle  of  the  scale,  and  lay  off  this  distance 
each  side  of  the  center  lines,  do  the  same  at 
the  other  end  of  the  stick,  and  strike  a  chalk 
line  through  these  marks.     Dress  off  the  cor- 
ners to  the  lines,  and  the  stick  will  be  octag- 
onal.     If  the  stick  is  not  straight  it  must  be 
gauged,  and  not  marked  with  the  chalk  line. 
Always  take  a  number  of  spaces  equal  to  the 
square  width  of  the  octagon  in  inches.     This 
scale  can   be   used   for  large   octagons  by 
doubling  or  trebling  the  measurements. 

On  some  squares,  there  are  other  scales, 
but  I  do  not  advise  the  use  of  squares  that 
are  surcharged  with  too  many  scales  and  fig- 
ures, as  they  lead  to  confusion  and  loss  of  time. 
It  will  now  be  in  order  to  offer  a  few 
things  that  can  be  done  with  the  steel 
square,  in  a  shorter  time  than  by  applying 
any  other  methods.     If  we  wish  to  get  the    Fig.  23. 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


W 


length  and  bevels  for  any  common  rafter  it  can  be  done 
on  short  notice  by  using  the  square  as  shown  in 
^^S-  23.  The  pitch  of  the  roof  will,  of  course,  gov- 
ern the  figures  to  be  employed  on  the  blade  and  tongue. 
For  a  quarter  pitch,  the  figures  must  be  6  and  12.  For 
half  pitch,  12  and  12  must  be  used.  For  a  steeper 
pitch,  12  and  a  larger  figure  must  be  used  according 
to  the  pitch  required.  For  the  lower  pitches,  8  and 
12  gives  a  one-third  pitch  and  9  and  12  a  still  steeper 
pitch;  and  from  this  the  workman  can  obtain  any  pitch 
he  requires.  If  the  span  is  24  feet,  the  square  must  be 
apniied  12  times,  as  12  is  half  of  24.  And  so  with 
ar  other  span:  The  square  must  be  applied  half  as 
mmy  times  as  there  are  feet  in  the  width.  This  is 
self-evident.  The  bevels  and  lengths  of  hip  and  val- 
ley rafters  may  be  obtained  in  a  similar  manner,  by 
first  taking  the  length  of  the  diagonal  line  between  12 
and  12,  on  the  square,  which  is  17  inches  in  round 
numbers.  Use  this  figure  on  the  blade,  and  the  "rise" 
whatever  that  may  be,  on  the  tongue.  Suppose  we 
have  a  roof  of  one -third  pitch,  which  has  a  span 
of  24  feet;  then  8,  which  is  one-third  of  24,  will  be 
the  height  oi  the  roof  at  the  point  or  ridge,  from  the 
base  of  the  roof  on  a  line  with  the  plates.  For 
example,  always  use  8,  which  is  one-third  of  24,  on 
tongue  for  altitude;  12,  half  the  width  of  24,  on  blade 
for  base.  This  cuts  common  rafter.  Next  is  the  hip 
rafter.  It  must  be  understood  that  the  diagonal  of  12 
and  12  is  17  in  framing,  as  before  stated,  and  the  hip 
is  the  diagonal  of  a  square  added  to  the  rise  of  roof; 
therefore  we  take  8  on  tongue  and  17  on  blade;  run 
the  same  number  of  times  as  common  rafter.  To  cut 
jack  rafters,  divide  the  number  of  openings  for  com- 
mon rafter.     Suppose  we  have  5  jacks,  with  six  open- 


»»  MODERN  CARPENTRY 

Ings   our  common  rafter  12  feet  long,  each  jack  would 
be  2  feet  shorter,  first   10  feet,  second  8  feet   third  6 
feet,  and  «o  on.     The  top  down  cut  the  same  as  cut  of 
common  rafter;   foot  also  the  same      To    .  t  miter  to 
fit  h.p:  Takr  half  the  width  of  building  on  tongue  and 
length  of  common  raftrr  „n  blade;    Made  gives  cut 
^.)w  find  the  diagonal  ol  8  and  12,  which  is  14A,  take 
12  on  tongue,  14,^  on  blade;    blade  gives  cut      The 
hip  rafter  must  be  beveled  to  suit;    height  of  hip  on 
tongue,  length  of  hip  on  blade;   tongue  gives  bevel. 
Tnen  we  take  8  on  tongue.  8^  on  blade;  tongue  gives 
the  bevel.     Those  figures  will  span  all  cuts  in  putting 
on  cornice  or  sheathing.     To  cut  bed  moulds  for  gable 
to  fit  under  cornice,  take  half  width  of  building  on 

tongue,    length   of 
common     rafter     on 
blade;     blade    gives 
cut;  machine  mould- 
ings   will    not    mem- 
ber, but  this  gives  a 
solid   joint;     and   to 
member   properly   it 
IS  necessary  to  make  moulding  by  hand,  the  diagonal 
plumb  cut  differences.      To  cut  planceer  to  run  up 
valley,  take  height  of  rafter  on  tongue,  length  of  rafter 
on  blade;   tongue  gives  cut.     The  plumb  cut  takes  the 
height  of  hip  rafter  on  tongue.  length  of  hip  rafter  on 
blade;    tongue  gives  cut.     These  figures  give  the  cuts 
tor  one-third  pitch  only,  regardless  of  width  of  build- 
ing.     The  construction  of  roofs  generally  will  be  taken 
up  in  another  chapter. 

A  ready  way  of  finding  the  length  and  cuts  for  cross- 
bndging  ,s  shown  at  Fig.  24.  If  the  joists  are  8  inches 
wide  and  16  inches  centers,   there  will    be   14   inches 


If 


m^m* 


WBfi'ii,4kf. 


PRAC'iiCAL   I     AMPLES 


n 


Fig.  25, 


b€twe<'n.  Place  the  square  on  8  and  14.  and  cut  on  R, 
and  yt  1  have  it.  Theonl}  '>oint  to  .1  n-rvc  is  that  the 
8  is  on  the  low.r  side  of  the  piece  of  bi  .iBinfj,  while  the 
14  is  on  the  upper,  and  not  both  on  same  side  of  tim- 
ber, as  in  marly  a!  work.  Bridging  for  any  depth  o£ 
joists,  :o  any  f' a 
sonable  distance  it 
joists  apar»  may  be 
obtain  ;il  by  th^ 
method.  A  (pi  ie  i- 
way  of  fin<iing  the 
joists  for  lavintj  out 

timber  to  !>■  v.  »rki(l  from  the  square  lo  an  octagon  sec- 
tion is  shown  at  1\'  25.  .  .ay  yo  ir  square  diagonally 
across  your  timber  -nd  mark  at  7  a^.d  17,  which  gives 
corner  of  octa-jon.  I'he  fi;,-ure*;  7  and  17,  on  either 
a  square  or  two-foot  \  )cket  rule.  wh<  laid  on  a  board 
or  piece  of  timber  as  shown,  always  define  the  points 
where  the  octa{,'onal  angle  ui  arri-  should  be. 

Fig.  26  shows  a 
rapid  method  of 
dividing  an>th.  ' 
into  sevt;ral  e.'4u..i 
parts.  If  the  board 
is  lOj^  inches  wide, 
lay  the  square  from 


Fig.2«. 


heel  to  12,  and  mark  at  3,  6  ,.nd  9,  and  you  have  it 
divided  into  four  .  qual  [.arts.  Any  width  of  board  or 
any  number  of  parts  may  be  worked  with  accuracy 
under  the  same  method. 

A  method  for  obtaining  the  "cuts"  for  octagon  and 
hexagon  joints  is  shown  at  Fig.  2/.  Lay  off  a  qiiartcr 
circle  XA,  with  C  as  a  enter;  then  along  the  hori- 
zontal line  AB  the  square  is  laid  with  u"  on  the  blad.- 


«o  MODERN  CARPENTRY 

at  the  center  C.  from  which  the  quadrant  was  struck. 
If  we  divide  this  quadrant  into  halves,  we  get  the  point 
12.,  and  a  line  drawn  from  12"  on  the  blade  of  the 
square  and  through  the  point  E,  we  cut  the  tongue  of 
the  square  at  12"  and  through  to  O.  and  the  line  thus 
drawn  makes  an  angle  of  45°,  a  true  miter.  If  we 
divide  the  quadrant  between  E  and  X,  and  then  draw 
a  hne  from  C  and  12"  on  the  blade  of  the  square,  cut- 
ting the  dividing  point  D.  we  get  the  octagon  cut 
wh.ch  IS  the  line  DC.     Again,  if  we  divide  the  space 


between  E  and  X  into  three  equal  parts,  making  GC 
one  of  these  parts,  and  draw  a  line  from  C  to  G  CMttine 
the  tongue  of  the  square  at  7",  we  get  a  cut  that  will 
give  us  a  miter  for  a  hexagon;  therefore,  we  see  from 
this  that  If  we  set  a  steel  square  on  any  straight  edge 
or  straight  line,  12"  and  12"  on  blade  and  tongue  on 
the  line  or  edge,  we  get  a  true  miter  by  marking  along 
the  edge  of  the  blade.  For  an  octagon  miter,  we  set 
the  blade  on  the  line  at  12",  and  the  tongue  at  5",  and 
we  get  the  angle  on  the  line  of  the  blade-nearly;  and 
for  a  hexagon  cut.  we  place  the  blade  at  12"  on  the 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


St 


line,  and  the  tongue  at  7",  and  the  line  o£  the  blade 
gives  the  angle  of  cut — nearly.  The  actual  figure  for 
octagon  is  4IJ,  but  5"  is  close  enough;  and  for  a  hexa- 
gon cut,  the  exact  figures  are  12"  and  6\l,  but  12"  and 
7"  is  as  near  as  most  workmen  will  require,  unless  the 
cut  is  a  very  long  one. 

The  diagram  shown  at  Fig.  28  iUustrPtes  a  method 
o.'  defining  the  pitches  of  roofs,  and  also  gives  the  fig- 
ures on  the  square  for  laying  out  the  rafters  for  such 
pitches.  By  a  very  common  usage  among  carpenters 
and  builders,  the  pitch  of  a  roof  is  described 
by  indicating  what  fraction  the  rise  is  of  the 
span.  If,  for  example,  the  span  is  24  feet 
(and  here  it  should  be  remarked  that  the  dia- 
gram shows  only  one-half  the  span),  then  6 
feet  rise  would  be  called 
quarter  pitch,  because  6  is 
one-quarter  of  24.  The  rul 
somewhat  arbitrarily  ex- 
pressed,   that    is    applicaL! . 


X'ii'Ji'Aa'A'A'/V'A'A'A'A 


I 
u 

it 


ii 


in  such  cases  in  roof  framing  where  the  roof  is  one- 
quarter  pitch,  is  as  follows:  Use  12  of  the  blade,  and 
6  of  the  tongue.  For  other  pitches  use  the  figures 
appropriate  thereto  in  the  same  general  manner. 

The  diagram  indicates  the  figures  for  sixth  pitch, 
quarter  oitch,  third  pitch  and  half  pitch.  The  first 
three  of  these  are  in  vt?ry  common  use,  although  the 
latter  is  somewhat  exceptional. 

It  will  take  but  a  moment's  reflection  upon  the  part 


8* 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


of  a  practical  man,  with  this  diagram  before  him.  to 
perceive  that  no  changes  are  necessary  in  the  rule 
where  the  span  is  more  or  less  than  24  feet.  The  cuts 
are  the  same  for  quarter  pitch  irrespective  of  the 
actual  dimensions  of  the  building.  The  square  in  all 
such  cases  is  used  on  the  basis  of  similar  triangles. 
The  broad  rule  is  simply  this:  To  construct  with  t\e 
square  such  a  triangle  as  will  proportionately  and  cor- 
rectly represent  the  full  size,  the  blade  becomes  the 
base,  the  tongue  the  altitude  or  rise,  while  the  hypoth- 

enuse  that   results  rep- 
resents the  rafter.     The 
necessary    cuts    are 
shown    by   the    tongue 
and  blade  respectively. 
In  order  to  give  a  gen- 
eral  idea  of  the  use  of 
the  square  I  herewith  ap- 
pend a  few  illustrations 
of  Its  application   in  framing  a  roof  of,  say,  one-third 
pitch,  which  will   be  supposed  to  consist  of  common 
rafters,  hips,  valleys,  jack   rafters  and  ridges.     Let   it 
be  assumed  that  the  building  to  be  dealt  with  measures 
30  feet  from  outside  to  outside  of  wall  plates;    the  toe 
of  the  rafters  to  be  fair  with  the  outside  of  the  wall 
plates,  the  pitch  being  one-third  (that  is  th,   roof  rises 
from   the  top  of  the  wall  plate  to  the  top  of  the  ridge, 
<.ne-third  of  the  width  of  the  building,  or  10  feet)    the 
half  width  of  the  building  bring  15   k-vt.     Thus,'  the 
figures    for   working  on    the    square  are  obtained;    if 
other  figures  are  used,  they  must  bear  the  same  relative 
proportion  to  each  other. 

To  get  the   retpiirecl   lengths   of  the   stuff,    measure 
across  the  corner  of  the  s.juare,  from  the  lo-inch  mark 


'aci.t  =^''::^EXisss5?22at^rsE!SH£r'* 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


83 


on  the  tongue  to  the  15-inch  mark  on  the  blade, 
Fig.  29.  This  gives  18  feet  as  the  length  of  the 
common  rafter.  To  get  the  bottoin  bevel  or  cut  to 
fit  on  the  wall  plate,  lay  the  square  flat  on  the  side  of 
the  rafter.  Start,  say,  at  the  right-hand  end,  with  the 
blade  of  the  square  to  the  right,  the  point  or  angle  of 
the  square  away  from  you,  and  the  rafter,  with  its 
back  (or  what  will  be  the  top  edge  of  it  when  it  is 
fixed)  towards  you.  Now  place  the  15-inch  mark  of 
the  blade  and  the  lo-inch  mark  of  the  tongue  on  the 
corner  of  the  rafter — that  is,  towards  you — still  keeping 
the  square  laid 
fll  a  t ,  and  mark 
along  the  side  of 
the  blade.  This 
gives  the  bottom 
cut,  and  will  fit 
the  wall  plate. 
Now  move  the 
square  to  the  other 

end  of  the  rafter,  place  it  in  the  same  position  as 
before  to  the  18-foot  mark  on  the  rafter  and  to  the 
lO-inch  mark  on  the  tongue,  and  the  15-inch  mark  on 
the  blade;  then  mark  alongside  the  tongue.  This 
gives  the  top  cut  to  fit  against  the  ridge.  To  get  the 
length  of  the  hip  rafter,  take  15  inches  on  the  blade 
and  15  inches  on  the  tongue  of  the  square,  and  measure 
across  the  corner.  This  gives  Jt,'',,  inches.  Now  take 
this  figure  on  the  blaile  and  10  inches  on  the  tongue, 
then  measuring  across  the  corner  gives  the  length  of 
the  hip  rafter. 

Another  method  is  to  take  the  17-inch  mark  on  the 
blade  and  the  8-inch  mark  on  the  tongue  and  begin  as 
with  the  common  rafter,  as  at  Fig.  30.     Mark  along 


i 


84 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


the  8?He  of  the  blade  for  the  bottom  cut.  Move  the 
square  to  the  left  as  many  times  as  there  are  feet  in 
the  half  of  the  width  of  the  building  (in  the  present 
case  as  we  have  seen.  15  feet  is  half  the  width),  keep- 
ing the  above-mentioned  figures  17  and  8  in  line  with 

the  top  edge  of  the  hip  rafter; 
step  it  along  just  the  same  as 
when  applying  a  pitch  board  on 
a  stair-string,  and  after  moving 
it  along  15  steps,  mark  along- 
side the  tongue.  This  gives  the 
top  cut  or  bevel  and  the  length. 
The  reason  17  and  8  are  taken 
on  thesquare  is  that  1 2  and  8  rep- 
resent the  rise  and  run  of  the 
...  .  common  rafter  to  i  foot  on  plan, 

while  17  and  8  correspond  with  the  plan  of  the  hips 

To  get  the  length  of  the  jack  rafters,  proceed  in  the 
same  manner  as  for  common  or  hip  rafters;   or  alter- 
nately space  the  jacks  and  divide  the  lenj^th  of  the  com- 
mon  rafter  into  the  same 
number  of  spaces.      This 
gives  the   length   of  each 
jack  rafter. 

To  get  the  bevel  of  the 
top  edge  of  the  jack  rafter, 
Fig-  31.  take  the  length, 
14H  of  the  common  rafter 
on  the  blade  and  the  run  of  the  common  rafter  on  the 

along  the  side  of  the  blade;  this  gives  the  bevel  or  cut 
The  down  bevel  and  the  bevel  at  the  bottom  end  are 
the  same  as  for  the  common  rafter 
To  get  the  bevel   for  the  side  of  the  purlin  to  fit 


mmssijmmisumsm^^m^mssii'hi^ 


mpim 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


^5 


against  the  hip  rafter,  place  the  square  flat  against  the 
side  of  the  purlin,  with  8  inches  on  the  tongue  and 
'l4^i  inches  on  the  blade.  Fig.  32.  Mark  alongside  of 
the  tongue.  This  gives  the  side  cut  or  bevel.  The 
14^  inches  is  the  length  of  the  common  rafter  to  the 
l-foot  run,  and  the  8  inches  represent  the  rise. 

For  the  edge  bcve"  of  purlin,  lay  the  square  flat 
against  the  ^  'f^c  ot  purHn  with  12  inches  on  the  tongue 
and  14'-  '.nchis  on  the  *^lade,  as  at  Fig.  33,  and  mark 
along  the  side  of  the 
tongue.  This  gives 
the  bevel  or  cut  for  the 
edge  of  the  purlin. 

The  rafter  patterns 
must  be  cut  half  the 
thickness  of  ridge 
shorter;  and  half  the 
thickness  of  the  hip  rafter  allowed  off  the  jack  rafters. 

These  examples  of  what  may  be  achieved  by  the  aid 
of  the  square  are  only  a  few  of  the  hundreds  that  can 
be  solved  by  an  intelligent  use  of  that  wonderful  instru- 
ment, but  it  is  impossible  in  a  work  of  this  kind  to 
illustrate  more  than  are  here  presented.  The  subject 
will  be  dealt  with  at  length  in  a  separate  volume. 


Fi<r.  33. 


CHAPTER  II 


GENKRAI.  FkAMING  AND  ROOFING 

Heavy  framinj,'  is  now  almost  a  dead  science  in  this 
country  unless  it  be  in  the  far  west  or  south,  as  steel 
and  iron  have  displaced  the  heavy  timber  structures 
that  thiity  or  forty  years  ago  were  S(.  plentiful  in 
roofs,    bridges  and   trestle-work.      As    it  will   not  be 


necessary  to  go  deeply  into  heavy-timber  framing, 
therefore  I  will  confine  myself  more  particularly  to  the 
framing  of  ballon  buildings  generally. 

A  ballon  frame  consists  chiefly  of  a  frame-work  of 
scantling.  The  scantling  may  be  2  x  4  inches,  or  any 
other  size  that  may  be  determined.  The  scantlings  are 
spiked  to  the  sills,  or  are  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the 
joist  which  rests  on  the  sills,  or,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case,    a    rough    floor    ni;.y   be    nailed    on    the    joists, 

36 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


87 


and  on  this,  ribbon  pieces 
of  2  X  4-inch  stuff  are 
spiked  around  to  the  outer 
edge  of  the  foundation, 
and  onto  these  ribbon 
pieces  the  scantling  is 
placed  and  "toe-nailed" 
to  them.  The  doors  and 
windows  are  spaced  off  as 
shown  in  Fig.  34,  which 
represents  a  ballon  frame 
and  roof  in  skeleton  condition.  These  frames  are 
generally  boarded  on  both  sides,  always  on  the  out- 
side. Sometimes  the  boarding  on  the  outside  is  nailed 
on  diagonally,  but  more 
frequently  horizontally, 
which,  in  my  opinion,  is 
the  better  way,  providing 
always  the  boarding  is  dry 
and  the  joints  laid  close. 
The  joists  are  laid  on 
"rolling,"  that  is,  there 
are  no  gains  or  tenons  em- 
ployed, unless  in  trimmers 
or  similar  work.  The 
joists  are  simply  "toe- 
nailed" onto  sill  plates,  or 

ribbon  pieces,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.     Sometimes 
the  joists  are  made  to  rest  on  the  sills,  as  shown  in 

Fig.  35,  the  sill  being  no  more 
than  a  2  X  4-inch  scantling  laid 
in  mortar  on  the  foundation,  the 
outside  joists  forming  a  sill  for 
the  side  studs.    A  better  plan  is 


-eiio*'"* 


Fi^  3T 


88 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


shown  in  Fig.  36.  which  gives  a  method  known  as  a 

"box-sill."      The    manner    of 

simple. 


construction    is 


very 


All  joists  in  a  building  of  this  kind  must  be  bridged 
similar  to  the  manner  shown  in  F'ig.  37,  about  every 
eight  feet  of  their  length;  in  spans  less  than  sixteen 
feet,  and  more  than  eight  feet,  a  row  of  bridging 
should  always  be  put  in  midway  in  the  span.  Bridg- 
ing should  not  be  less  than 
I  to  I  ■%  inches  in  section. 

In  trimming  around  a 
chimney  or  a  stair  well-hole, 
sev(  ral  methods  arc  em 
ployed.  Sometimes  the 
headers  and  trimmers  are 
made  from  material  twice  as 
thick  and  the  same  depth  as 
the  ordinary  joists,  and  the  intermediate  joists  are 
tenoned  into  the  header,  as  shown  in  Fig.  38.  Here 
we  have  T,  T.  for  header,  and  T,  J,  T,  J,  for  tr'im.ners, 
and  b,j.  for  the  ordinary  joists.  In  thi-  uestern,  and 
also  some  of  the  central  States,  the  trimmers  and 
headers  are  made  up  of  two  thicknesses,  the  header 
being  mortised  to  secure  the  ends  of  the  joists.     The 


PRACTICAL  EXAMPLES 


two  thicknesses  are 
well  nailed  together. 
This  method  is  exhib- 
ited at  Fig.  39.,  which 
also  shows  one  way  to 
trim  around  a  hearth; 
C  shows  the  header 
with  t  r  i  m  ill  e  r  joists 
with  tusk  tenons,  keyed 
solid  in  place. 

Frequently    it    hap- 
pens  that   a    chimney 
rises  in  a  building  from 
its  own  foundation,  disconnected 
from  the  walls,  in  which  case  the 
chimney  shaft  will  require  to  be 
trimmed  all  around,  as  shown  in 


Fig.  12. 


r**Fig.  4L 


Fig.  40.  In  cases  of 
this  kind  the  trim- 
mers A,  A,  should  be 
made  of  stuff  very 
much  thicker  than 
the  joists,  as  tluy 
hav?'  to  bear  a  double 
burden;  B,  B  shows 
the  heading,  and  C, 
C,  C,  C  the  tail  joisf. 
B,  B,  should  have  ^ 
thickness  double  that 
of  C,  C,  etc.,  and  A, 
A  should  at  least  be 


m 


9° 


thivt  times 


:vlOI)EKN  CARPENTRY 


so-ne  extent 


stout  as  C,  C.     This  wil 
cqualue  the  strength  of  th.    whole  fi_.  „„.,„   „  , 

for  a  hoor  .s  no  stronger  than  its  weakest  part 

I  here  are  a  number  oi  devir..,  f,^-  f  •        • 
stairs,   fire-n|-,ces    .n  »       '"'''"'*-''  ^""^  tnmmmg  around 

^uttingo^i;orin;  r  t"7ir'"'^  ''■:":''  ''^ 
-thod  is  to  cut  ^uJ.lr't::.:^^':;'  """^ 

-^  me  exact  length,  square 

'n  the  ends,  and  then  insert 

jron  dowels— two  or  more— 

in   the    ends    of    the   joists, 

pr^lo^^^  and  then  bore  holes  in  the 

v/^/*%^'X  trimmers  and  headers  to  suit, 

and    drive    the    whole   solid 
together.      The   dowels   are 
made  from  ^-inch  or  t-inch 
round  iron.     Another  and  a 
better  device  is  the  "bridle 
iron,"  which  may  be  hooked 
over  the  trimmer  or  header, 
as  the  case  may  be,  the  stir- 
rup carrying  the  abutting  timber,  as  shown  in  Fir:   41 
These      br.dle    irons"    are  made    of    wrought    ..on- 
2  X  2>^  inches,  or  larger  dimensions  if  the  work  requires 
such;    for  ordinary  jobs,  however,  the  size  given  wil 
be  ound  plenty  heavy  for  carrying  the  tail  joists,  and  a 
little  heavier  may  be  employ.-d  to  carry  the  header. 
1  his  style  of  connecting  the  trimmings  does  not  hold 
h    frame-work  together,  and  in  places  where  there  is 
uiy  tendency  to  thrust  the  work  apart,  some  provision 
must  be  made  to  prevent  the  work  from  spreading 
in  trimming  for  a  chimney  in  a  roof,  the  "headers  " 
stretchers      or   "trimmers,"  and   "tail  rafters,"   miy 
be  simp  y  nai  ed  in  Dlan-    3«  fi    .     :  .     ^ 

I  3     aucu  in  piatc,  as  tl;,  re  is  no  great  weight 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


•« 


beyond  snow  and  wind  pressure  to  carry,  therefore 
the  same  precautions  for  strength  are  not  necessary. 
The  sketch  shown  at  Fig.  42  explains  how  the  chimney 
openings  in  the  roof  may  be  trimmed,  the  parts  being 
only  spiked  together.  A  shows  a  hip  rafter  against 
which  the  cripples  on  both  sides  are  spiked.  The 
chimney-stack  is  shown  in  the  center  of  the  roof  — 
isolated— trimmed  on  the  four  sides.     The  sketch  is 


r>g:«^ 


self-explanatory  in  a  measure,  and  should  be  easily 
understood. 

An  example  or  two  showing  how  the  rafters  may  be 
connected  with  the  plates  at  the  eaves  and  finished  for 
cornice  and  gutters,  may  not  be  out  of  place.  A  sim- 
ple method  is  shown  at  Fig.  43.  where  the  cornice  is 
complete  and  consists  of  a  few  members  only.  The 
gutter  is  attached  to  the  crown  moulding,  as  shown. 

Another  method  is  shown  at  Fifr.  44,  this  one 
being  intended  for  a  brick  wall  having  .ailing  courses 
over  cornice.     The  gutter  is  built  in  of  wood,  and  is 


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9» 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


H 


rii 


lined  throughout  with  galvanized  iron  This  makes  a 
substantial  job  and  may  be  used  to  good  purpose  on 
brick  or  stone  warehouses,  factories  or  similar  build- 
ings. 

Another   style  of   rafter   finish   is 
shown  at  Fig  45,  which  also  shows 
scheme  of  cornice.     A  similar  fin- 
ish  is   shown   at    Fig.  46,    the  cor- 
nice being  a  little  differ- 
ent.    In  both  these  exam- 
ples,   the    gutters  are    of 
wood,    which     should    be 
lined  with  sheet  metal  of 
some  sort  in  order  to  pre- 
vent  their  too  rapid    de- 
cay.   At  Fig.  47  a  rafter 
finish    is    shown  which    is 
intended   for    a    veranda  or   porch. 
Here  the  construction  is  very  simple. 
The  rafters   are  dressed   and  cut  on 
projecting  end  to  represent  brackets 
and  form  a  finish 

From  these  examples  the  workman  will  get  suflficient 
Ideas  for  working  his  rafters  to  suit  almost  any  condi- 
tion. Though  there  are 
many  hundreds  of  styles 
which  might  be  presented, 
the  foregoing  are  ample 
for  our  purpose. 

It  will  now  be  in  order 
to  take  up  the   construc- 
tion of  roofs,  and  describe  the  methods  by  which  such 
construction  is  obtained. 
The  method  of  obtaining  the  lengths  and  bevels  of 


, 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


93 


rafters  for  ordinary  roofs,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig 
48,  has  already  been  given  in  the  chapter  on  the  steel 
square.  Something  has  also  been  said  regarding  hip 
and  valley  roots;  but  not  enough,  I  think,  to  satisfy 
the  full  requirements  of  the  workman,  so  I  will 
endeavor  to  give  a  clearer  idea  of  the  construction  of 
these  roofs  by  employing  the  graphic  system,  instead 
of  depending  altogether  on  the  steel  square,  though  I 


earnestly  advise  the  workman  to  "stick  to  the  square." 
It  never  makes  a  mistake,  though  the  owner  may  in  its 
application. 

A  "hip  roof,"  pure  and  oimple,  has  no  gables,  and 
is  often  called  a  "c  ittage  rocf,"  because  of  its  being 
best  adapted  for  cottages  having  only  one,  or  one  and 
a  half,  stories.  The  chief  difficulty  in  its  construction 
is  getting  the  lengths  and  bevels  of  the  hip  or  angle 
rafter  and  the  jack  or  cripple  rafter.  To  the  expert 
workman,  this  is  an  easy  matter,  as  he  can  readily 
obtain  both  lengths  and  bevels  by  aid  of  the  square,  or 
b;'  lines  such  as  I  am  about  to  produce. 


\W, 


94 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


The  illustration  shown  at  Fig.  49  shows  the  simplest 
form  of  a  hip  roof.  Here  the  four  hips  or  diagonal 
rafters  meet  in  the  center  of  the  plan.  Another  style 
of  hip  roof,  having  a  gable  and  a  ridge  in  the  center 

of  the  building,  is  shown  at 
Fig.  50.  This  is  quite  a 
common  style  of  roof,  and 
under  almost  every  condi- 
tion it  looks  well  and  has 
a  good  effect.  The  plan 
shows  lines  of  hips,  valleys  and  ridges. 

The   siniplest  form   of  roof   is  that  known  as  the 
"iean-to"   roof.     This  is  formed  by  causing  one  side 
wall  to  be  raised  higher  than  the  opposite  side  wall,  so 
that     when    rafters    or 
joists  are  laid  from  the 
high  to  the  low  wall  a 
sloping  roof  is  the  re- 
sult.     This   style  of    a 
roof  is  sometimes  called 
a    "shed    roof"     or     a 
"pent  roof."   The  shape 
is  shown  at  Fig.  51,  the 
upper    sketch    showing 
an    end   view    and    the 
lower  one  a  plan  of  the 
roof.      The   method   of 
framing    this    roof,    or 
adjusting    the     timbers 
for  it,    is  quite  obvious    and  needs   no   explanation. 
This  style  of  roof  is  in  general  use  where  an  annex  or 
shed  is  built  up  against  a  superior  building,  hence  its 
name  of  "lean-to,"   as  it  usually  "leans"  against  the 
main  buildint^    the  wall  of  which  is  utilized  for  the 


^» 


'^c%A.H^,t>&^^^b 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


95 


high  part  of  the  shed  or  annex,  thus  saving  the  cost  of 
the  most  important  wall  of  the  structure, 

Next  to  the  "lean-to"  or  "shed  roof"  in  simplicity 
comes  the  "saddle"  or  "double  roof."  This  roof  is 
shown  at  Fig.  52  by  the  end  view  on  the  top  of  the  fig- 
ure, and  the  plan  at  the  bottom.  It  will  be  seen  that 
this  roof  has  a  double  slope,  the  planes  forming  the 
slopes  are  equally  inclined  to  the  horizon;  the  meet- 
ing of  their  highest  sides  makes  an  arris  which  is 
called  the  ridge  of  the  roof; 
and  the  triangular  spaces  at 
the  end  of  the  walls  are 
called  gables. 

It  is  but  a  few  years  ago 
when  the  mansard  roof  was 
very  popular,  and  many  of 
them  can  be  found  in  the 
older  parts  of  the  country, 
having  bec.i  erected  be- 
tween the  early  fifties  and 
the  eighties,  but,  for  many 
reasons,  they  are  now  less 
used.  Fig.  53  shows  a  roof  of  this  kind.  It  is  pene- 
trated generally  by  dormers,  as  shown  in  the  sketch, 
and  the  top  is  covered  either  ly  a  "deck  root"  or  a 
very  flat  hip  roof,  as  shown.  Sometimes  the  sloping 
sides  of  these  roofs  are  curved,  v.hich  give  them  a 
graceful  appearance,  but  adds  materially  to  their  cost. 
Another  style  of  roof  is  shown  at  Fig.  54.  This  is  a 
gambrel  roof,  and  was  very  much  in  evidence  in  pre- 
revolutionary  times,  particularly  among  our  Knicker- 
bocker ancestors.  In  conjunction  with  appropriate 
dormers,  this  style  of  roof  figures  prominently  in  what 
is   known   as   early    "colonial   style,"      It   has   some 


Tig.  51. 


Ficr.  52, 


mia-  •^M^wmm^^^MKmf 


96 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


V 


■■M 


advantages  over  the  mansard.  Besides  these  there  are 
many  othe-  kinds  of  roofs,  but  it  is  not  my  purpose  to 
enter  largely  into  the  matter  of  styles  of  roofs,  but 
sir-ply  to  arm  the  workman  with  such  rules  and  prac- 
tical equipment  that  he 
will  be  able  to  tackle 
with  success  almost  any 
kind  of  a  roof  that  he 


may  be  called  upon  to 
construct. 

When  dealing  with 
the  steel  square  I  ex- 
plained how  the  lengths 
and  bevels  for  common  rafters  could  be  obtained  by 
the  use  of  the  steel  square  alone;  also  hips,  purlins, 
valleys  and  jack  rafters  might  be  obtained  by  the  use 
of  the  square,  but,  in  order  to  fully  equip  the  workman, 
I  deem  it  necessary  to  present  for  his  benefit  a  graphic 
method  of  obtaining  the  lengths,  cuts  and  backing  of 
rafters  and  purlins 
required  for  a  hip 
roof. 

At  Fig.  55,  I 
show  the  plans  of 
a  simple  hip  roof 
having  a  ridge. 
The  hips  on  the 
plan  form  an  angle  of  45^  or  a  miter,  as  it  were  The 
plan  being  rectangular  leaves  the  ridge  the  length  of 
thqrrt^rerce  between  the  length  and  the  width  of  the 
bpirdii^.  Make  cd  on  the  ridge-lire  as  shown,  half 
the  width  of  ad,  and  the  angle  dJa  will  be  a  right  angle 
Then  if  we  extend  M  to  e,  making  ae  the  rise  of  the 
roof,  ae  will  be  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter,  and  the 


■■*¥l 


')j*9^^sms,  'n^Hnom-'^o'AP.Ln'rssatnr^-  jismd^  ma?^ 


■"filT/'AJti/r  J,  »  .■ 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


99 


angle  at  x  will  be  the  plumb  cut  at  point  of  hip  and 
the  angle  at  a  will  be  the  cut  at  the  foot  of  the  rafter. 
The  angle  at  i'  shows  the  backing  of  the  hip.  This 
bevel  is  obtained  as  follows:  Make  o^t;  and  alt  equ'. 
d.-tances — any  distance  wil'  serve — then  draw  a  line 
h-i  across  the  angle  of  the  building,  then  with  a  ce..ter 
on  ad  at  p,  touching  the  line  ae  at  s,  describe  u  circle 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  line,  then  draw  th.e  lines  kit  and 


^g",  and  that  angle,  as  shown  by  the  bevel  v,  will  be 
the  backing  or  bevel  for  the  top  of  the  hip,  beveling 
:h  way  from  a  center  line  of  the-  hip.  This  rule  for 
uacking  a  hip  holds  good  in  all  kinds  of  hips,  also  for 
guttering  a  valley  rafter,  if  the  bevel  is  reversed.  A 
hip  roof  wher^  all  the  hips  abut  each  other  in  the  cen- 
ter is  shown  in  Fig.  56.  T  is  style  of  roof  is  genpt^Uy 
called  a  "pyrimidal  rooi  '  because  it  has  the  appear^ 
ance  of  a  low  flattened  pyramid.  The  same  rules 
governing  Fig.  55  apply  to  this  examp  .\  The  bevels 
C  and  B  show  the  backing  of  the  hip,  B  showing  the 


r^'ja^!rF''imsKitmKisa&mu^mammss'Jitnjm;piigmm^  uiiuiyj^i  ■■JiiMng?"jf:-»^»'4iiJii 


98 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


top  from  the  center  line 
ae\  and  C  showing  the 
bevel  as  placed  against 
the  side  of  the  hip,  which 
is  always  the  better  way 
to  work  the  hip.  A  por- 
tio.i  of  the  hip  backed  is 
shown  at  C.  The  rise  of 
the  roof  is  shown  at  O. 

At  Fig.  57  a  plan  of  a 
roof  is  shown  where  the 
seats  of  the  hips  are  not 
on  an  angle  of  45°  and 
where  the  ends  and  sides 
of  the  roof  are  of  different 

pitches.     Take   the   base  line  of  the  hip,  ^e  or  e^,  and 

make  ef  perpendicular    to    at;    from   e,  and  equal    to 

the  rise  at/;  make  /a  or  /jf  for  the  length  of  the  hip, 

by  drawing  the  Ime  /m  at  right  angles  to  ae.     This 

gives  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter.     The  backing  of  the 

hip  is  obtained   in  a  like  manner  to  former  examples, 

only,  in  cases  of 

this    kind,    there  ^^^''^^ 

are  two  bevels  for  ^  .     !     T*^. 

the  backing,  one 

side   of    the    hip 

being  more  acute 

than  the  other,  as 

shown  at   D  and 

E.      If    the    hips 

are  to  be  mitered, 

as   is    sometimes 

the  case  in  roofs 

of  this  kind,  then 


'-%  ^4^^mmmm^m:s^^m*M^^>M^:^fm^w 


M^^Kwm 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


99 


the  back  of  the  hip 
will  assume  the 
shape  as  shown  by 
the  two  bevels  at  F. 
A  !  ip  roof  having 
an  irregular  plan  is 
shjwn  at  Fig.  58. 
This  requires  no  ex- 
planation, as  the  hips  and  bevels  are  obtained  in  the 

same  manner  as  in  previous  examples.     The  backing 

of  the  hips  is  shown  at  FG. 

An  octagon  roof  is  shown  at  Fig.  59,  with  all  the 

lines  necessary  for  getting  the  1    igths,  bs-vcls,  and  back- 
ing for  the  hips. 

The    line  ax 

shows  the   seat 

of  the   hip,   xe 

the  rise  of  roof, 

and   ae    the 

length  of   I 

and  plumb  cut 

and  the  bevel  at 

E  shows    the 

backing  of  the 

hips. 

These   exam- 
ples will   be 

quite    sufficient 

to    enable     the 

workman   to 

understand    the 

general    theory 

of     laying    out 

hip  roofs.      I 


vi-iii£i-^-j&b^.-ir; 


loo 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


may  also  state  that  to  save  a  repetition  o'  drawing  and 
explaining  the  rules  that  govern  the  construction  of 
hip  roofs,  such  as  I  have  presented  serve  equally  well 
for  skylight-,  or  similar  work.  Indeed,  the  clever 
workman  will  find  hundreds  of  instances  in  his  w-.rk 
where  the  rules  given  will  prove  useful. 


There  are  a  number  of  methods  for  getting  the 
lengths  and  bevels  for  purlins,  I  give  one  here  which 
I  think  is  equal  to  any  other,  and  perhaps  as  simple. 
Suppose  Fig.  60  shows  one  end  of  a  hip  roof,  also  the 
rise  and  length  of  common  rafters.  Let  the  purlin  be  in 
any  place  on  the  rafter,  as  I,  and  in  its  most  com- 
mon  position,  that  is,  standing  square  with  the  .alter; 
then  with  the  point  ^  as  a  center  with  any  radius, 
describe  a  circle.     Draw  two  lines,  ql  and  pn,  to  touch 


if4^ 


m'rx'\-M^f!^^-''^'-j 


:4j'  ::-333.«IKL'7'I«r*!lK'JiaE»i37;: 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


lOl 


the  circle/)  and  q  parallel  \o  fb  and  at  the  points  s  and 
r,  where  the  two  sides  of  the  purlin  intersect,  draw  two 
parallel  lines  lo  the  former,  to  cut  the  diaj,'<>nal  in  m 
and  k;  then  G  is  the  down  bevd  and  F  the  side  bevel 
of  the  purlin;  these  two  bevels,  when  applieii  to  the 
end  of  the  purlin,  and  when  cut  by  them,  will  t  xactly 
fit  the  side  of  the  hip  rafters. 

To  find  the  cuts  of  a  pjrlin  where  two  sides  are 
parallel  to  horizon:  The  square  at  H  and  the  bevel  at 
C  will  show  how  to  draw  the  end  of  the  purlin  in  this 
easy  case.  The  followin^r  is  universal  in  all  posi- 
tions  of  the  purlin:  Let ///^  be  the  width  of  a  square 
roof,  make  bfox  ae  one-half  of  the  width,  and  make  cd 
perpendicular  in  the  middle  of  ef,  the  height  of  the 
roof  or  rise,  which  in  this  case  is  one-third;  then  draw 
de  and  df,  which  are  each  the  length  of  the  common 
rafter. 

To  find  the  bevel  of  a  jack  rafter  against  the  hip, 
proceed  as  follows:  Turn  the  5'ock  of  the  side  bevel 
at  F  from  a  around  to  the  line  />,  which  will  give  the 
side  bevel  of  the  jack  rafter  The  bevel  at  A,  which  is 
the  top  of  the  common  rafter,  i>  th<'  do  ,  n  l)evel  of  the 
jack  rafter. 

At  D  the  method  of  getting     he  back    .^  of 
rafter  is  shown  the  same  as  exj.ained  in  othei 

There  are  (uner    methods  of    obtaining  '"■\ 
pu.lins,  but   the  one  offered  here  will   suiVie. 
practical  purposes. 

I  gave  a  method  of  finding  the  back  cuts 
rafters  by  the  steel  square,  in  a  previous  cha| 
give  another  rule  herewith  for  the  steel  square: 
the  length  of  the  common  rafter  on  the  !;lade  ani 
nm  of  the  same  rafter  on  the  tongue,  and  the  Lia.; 
the  square  will  give  the  bevel  for  the  cut  on  the  ba 


hip 

ares. 

^  for 

all 


I 

ke 
e 


\^XLY-L^'tik^'K&^msm'"^'<.^^'^ 


I 


ICJ 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


i:t 


m 


o(  »he  jack  ra.'nr  For  exampi.-.  suppose  the  rise  to 
b.  6  feet  and  th<,-  run  «  ftct,  the  lenjjth  r.f  the  commor, 
racter  will  be  lo  feet.  Then  take  lo  f. xt  <.n  the  blade 
of  the  square,  and  8  feel  on  the  toni,'u.',  and  the  blade 
will  give  the  back  bevel  fur  the  cut  of  the  jack 
rafters. 

To  obtain  the  lenpth  of' jack  raft<  rs  is  a  very  simple 
process,  and  may  be  obtained  easily  by  a  dia(,'ram  as 
Bhown  in  Fig.  6l.  which  is  a  v«ry' common  method: 

First  lay  off  half  the  width 
of  the  fcuildiiij;  to  sc  '••,  as 
from  A  to  n,  the   leny;.i  of 
the  common  rafter  H  to  C, 
and  the   length  «)f  the   hip 
rafter  from  A  to  C.     Space 
off    the   widths    from    jack 
rafter  to  jack  rafter  as  shown 
by  the    lines    i,   2,   3,   and 
measure    them    accurately. 
Then  the  lines   i,  2,  and  3 
will  be  the  exact  lengths  of 
the  jack  rafters  in  those  divisions       Any  number  of 
jack  rafters  m   v  be  laid  off  this  way,  and  the  result 
will  be  the  Icn-th  of  each  rafter,  no  matter  what  may 
be  tne  pitch  of  the  roof  or  the  distance  the  rafters-are 
apart. 

A  table  for  determining  the  length  of  jack  rafters  is 
given  beiow,  whi.h  shows  the  lengths  required  for 
different  spacing  in  three  pitches: 

One-quarter  pitch  roof: 

They  cut  13  5  inches  shorter  each  time  when  spaced 
12  inches 

Thev  cut  18  ifl'-.hes  shorter  each  tiniL-  when  spaced 
)6  inches. 


fc?':  ^-jjm^'i^:  •fvam''^: 


•a^  .'sj^aitriw^"/*'"  '*:•- vij.  x  ir'vr?"!r -sn^-i^  «snB 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPl  ES 


103 


¥H 


Thi'y  cut  -'7  inches  shorter  each  tin.o  Ahax  spaced  24 
inches. 

One-third  pitch  roof: 

They  cut  14.4  inches  shorter  each  time  wb.n  spaced 
12  inches. 

They  cut  19.-'  inches  shorter  each  time  when  spaced 
16  inches. 

They  cut  28.8  in       s  shorter  each  time  when  spaced 
24  inches. 
One-half  pitch        .: 

Th-y  cut  17  inches  shorter  each  time  when  spaced 
12  inches. 


They  cut  22.6  inches  shorter  each  time  when  spaced 
in-hcs. 

hey  cut  34  inches  shorter  each   time  when  spaced 
^4  inches. 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  enter  deeply  into  a  discus- 
sion of  the  proper  methods  of  constructing  roofs  of  all 
shapes,  thoiijrh  a  few  hints  and  diaf,'ranis  of  octagonal, 
domical  and  other  roofs  and  spires  will  doubtless  be 
of  ser\  ice  to  the  general  workman.  One  of  the  most 
useful  methods  of  trussing  a  roof  is  that  known  as  a 
lattice  "built-up"  truss  roof,  similar  tc  that  shown  at 
Fig,  62.  The  rafters,  tie  beams  and  the  two  main 
braces  A,  A,  must  be  of  one  thickness— say,  2  x  4  or 
2x6  inches,  accord!nf4"  to  the  Icnf^th  of  the  span — 
while  the  minor  i>races  are  made  '  ;  i-inch  stuff  and 


li 


'm 


tci^-^j^fjc  "vo.fiiTS' ;  7  "aaK»Mi^^B!^!«s:^?^:^ssf:3^j3^C54.ii'i»^'i?i2iJija^p^ijr 


^fz 


104 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


about  10  or  12  inches  wide.  These  minor  braces  are 
well  nailed  to  the  tie  beams,  main  braces  and  rafters. 
The  main  braces  must  be  halved  over  each  other  at 
their  juncture,  and  bolted.  Sometimes  the  main 
braces  are  left  only  half  the  thickness  of  the  rafters, 
then  no  halving  will  be  necessary,  but  this  method  has 
the  disadvantage  of  having  the  minor  braces  nailed  to 
one  side  only.  To  obviate  this,  blocks  may  be  nailed  to 
the  inside  of  the  main  braces  to  make  up  the  thickness 


l\ 


required,  as  shown,  and  the  minor  braces  can  be  nailed 
or  bolted  to  the  main  brace. 

The  rafters  and  tie  beams  are  held  together  at  the 
foot  of  the  rafter  by  an  iron  bolt,  the  rafter  having  a 
crow-foot  joint  at  the  bottom,  which  is  let  into  the  tie 
beam.  The  main  braces  also  are  framed  into  the 
rafter  with  a  square  toe-joint  and  h  Id  in  place  with 
an  iron  bolt,  and  the  foot  of  the  brace  is  crow-footed 
into  the  tie  beam  over  the  wall. 

This  truss  is  easily  made,  maybe  put  together  on 
the  ground,  and,  as  it  is  light,  maybe  hoisted  in  place 
with  blocks  and  tackle,  with  but  little  trouble.  This 
truss  can  be  made  sufficiently  strong  to  span  a  roof 
from  40  to  75  feet.     Where  the  span   inclines  to  the 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


los 


greater  length,  the 
tie  beams  and  raft- 
ers may  be  made  of 
built-up  timbers,  but 
in  such  a  case  the 
tie  beams  should 
not  be  less  than 
6  X  10  inches,  nor 
the  rafters  less  than 
6x6  inches. 

Another  style  of 
roof     altogether     is 
shown    at    Fig.   63. 
This   is   a    self-sup- 
porting roof,  but  is 
somewhat  expensive 
if     intended    for    a 
building     having    a 
span   of  30   feet  or 
less.       It    is    fairly 
well     adapted    for 
halls  or  for  country 
churches,    where    a 
high    ceiling   is   re- 
quired and  the  span 
anywhere    from    30 
to  50  feet  over  all. 
It  would  not  be  safe 
to  risk  a  roof  of  this 
kind  on  a  building 
having  a  span  more 
than  50  feet.      The 
main  features  of  this 
roof  are:    (i)  having 


i     I  \ 
I 


!»' 


io6 


MODERN   CARPENVRY 


)llar  be 


(2) 


bolts 


truss  ^        _ 

joints  and  triple  bolts  at  the  feet. 

I  show  a  dome  and  the  manner  of  its  construction  at 
Fig.  64.  This  is  a  fine  example  of  French  timber 
framing.  The  main  carlins  are  shown  at  a,  b,  c,  d 
and  r,  Nos.  i  and  2,  and  the  horizontal  ribs  are  also 
shown  in  the  same  numbers,  with  the  curve  of  the 
outer  edge  described  on  them.  These  ribs  are  cut  in 
between  the  carlins  or  rafters  and  beveled  off  to  suit. 
This  dome  may  be  boarded  over  either  horizontally  or 
with  boards  made  into  "gores"  and 
laid  on  in  line  with  the  rafters  or 
carlins. 

The  manner  of  framing  is  well 
illustrated  in  Nos.  3  and  4  in  two 
ways,  No.  3  being  intended  to  form 
the  two  principal  trusses  which 
stretch  over  the  whole  diameter, 
while  No.  4  may  be  built  in  between 
the  main  trusses. 

The  illustrations  are  simple  and 
clear,  and  quite  sufficient  without 
further  explanation. 
Fig.  65  exhibits  a  portion  of  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  London,  which  was  designed  by  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren  The  system  of  the  framing  of  the 
external  dome  of  this  roof  is  given.  The  internal 
cupola,  AAl,  is  of  brick-work,  two  bricks  in  thickness, 
with  a  ourse  of  bricks  18  inches  in  length  at  every  five 
feet  of  -ise.  These  serve  as  a  firm  bond.  This  dome 
was  turned  upon  a  wooden  center,  whose  only  support 
was  the  projections  at  the  springing  of  the  dome, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  unique.  Outside  the  brick 
cupola,   which  is  only  alluded    to  in  order  that   the 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


107 


description  may  be  the  more  intelligible,  rises  a  brick- 
work cone  B.  A  portion  of  this  can  be  seen,  by  a 
spectator  on  the  floor  of  the  cathedral,  through  the 
central  opening  at  A.  The  timbers  which  carry  the 
external  dome  rest  upon  this  conical  brickwork.  The 
horizontal  hammer  beams,  C,  D,  E,  F,  are  curiously 
lied  to  the  corbels,  G,  H,   I,  K,  by  iron  cramps,  well 

bedded  with  lead  into  the 
corbels  and  bolted  to  the  ham- 
mer beams.  The  stairs,  or  lad- 
ders, by  which  the  ascent  to  the 
Golden  Gallery  or  the  summit 


Fig.G6< 


of  the  dome  is  made,  pass  among  the  roof  trusses. 
The  dome  has  a  planking  from  the  base  upwards,  and 
hence  the  principals  are  secured  horizontally  at  a  little 
distance  from  each  other.  The  contour  of  this  roof  is 
that  of  a  pointed  dome  or  arch,  the  principals  being 
segments  of  circles;  but  the  central  opening  for  the 
lantern,  of  course,  hinders  these  arches  from  meeting 
at  a  point.  The  scnntling  of  the  curved  principals  is 
10  j£  ii}i  inches  at  the  base,  decreasing  to  6x6  inches 


loS 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


at  the  top.  A  lantern  of  Portland  stone  crowns  the 
summit  of  the  dome.  The  method  of  framing  will  be 
clearly  seen  m  the  diagram.  It  is  in  every  respect  an 
excellent  specimen  of  roof  construction,  and  is  worthy 
of  the  genius  and  mathematical  skill  of  a  great  work- 
man. 

With  the  rules  offered  herewith  for  the  construction 
of  an  octagonal  spire,  I  close  the  subject 
o..  roofs:  To  obtain  bevels  and  lengths  of 
braces  for  an  octagonal   spire,   or  for  a 
spire  of  any  number  of  sides,   let  AB, 
Fig.  66,  be  one  of  the  sides.     Let  AC  and 
BC  be  the  seat  line  of  hip.     Let  AN  be 
the  seat  of  brace.     Now,  to  find  the  posi- 
tion of  the  tie  beam  on  the  hips  so  as  to 
be  square  with  the  boarding,  draw  a  line 
through  C,  square  with  AB,  indefiniiely. 
From  C,  and  square  with  EC,  dr?w  CM, 
making  it  equal  to  the  height.     Join  Em' 
Let  OF  be  the  height  of  the  tie  beam. 
At  F  draw  square  with  EM  a  line,  which 
produce  until  it  cuts  EC  prolonged  at  G 
Draw  CL  square  with  BC.     Make  CL  in 
^ngth  equal  to  EM.     Join  BL,  and  make  NH  equal  to 
OF.     From  G  draw  the  line  GS  parallel  with  AB   cut- 
tmg  BC  prolonged,  at  the  point  S;  then  the  angle  at  H 
is  the  bevel  on  the  hip  for  the  tie  beam.     For  a  bevel 
to  miter  the  tie  beam,  make  FV  equal  ON.     Join  VX- 
then  the  bevel  at  V  is  the  bevel  on  the  face.     For  the 
down  bevel  see  V   in  Fig.  67.     To  find  the  length  of 
brace,  make  AB,  Fig.  67.  equal  to  AB,  Fig.  66.     Make 
AL  and  BL  equal  to  BL,  Fig.  66.     Make  BP  equal  to 
BH.     Join  AP  and  BC,  which  will  be  the  length  of  il,c 
I  race.     The  bevels  numbered  i,  3,  5  and  7  are  all  to  be 


I 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


J  "9 


used,  as  shown  on  the  edge  of  the  brace.  No.  i  i,5  to 
be  used  at  the  top  above  No.  5.  For  the  b<vel  on  the 
face  to  miter  on  the  hip,  draw  AG,  Fig.  66,  cutting  BS 
at  J.  Join  JH.  Next,  in  Fig.  68,  make  AP  equal  AP, 
Fig.  67,  and  make  AJ  equal  to  AJ,  Fig.  66.  Make 
PJ  equal  to  JII,  Fig.  66,  and  make  PI  equal  to  HI. 
Join  AI;  then  the  bevel  marked  No.  5  will  be  correct 
for  the  beam  ne.xt  to  the  hip,  and  the  bevel  marked 
No.  6  will  be  correct  f(ir  the  top.  Bevel  No.  2  in  this 
figure  will  be  correct  for  the  beam  nexi  to  the  plate. 
The  edge  of  the  brace  is  to  correspond  with  the 
boarding. 

A  few  examples  of  scarfing  tim- 
ber are  presented  at  Figs.  69,  70,  71 
and  72.  The  example  shown  at 
Fig.  69  exhibits  a  mechod  by 
which  the  two  ends  of  the  timber 
are  joined  tojrether  with  a  step- 
splice  and  spur  or  tenon  on  end,  it 
being  drawn  tigh*  together  by  the 
keys,  as  shown  in  the  shaded  part.  Fig.  70  is  a  similar 
joint  though  simpler,  and  th  retore  a  better  one;  A,  A 
are  generally  joggles  of  hardwood,  and  not  wedged 
key?  but  the  latter  are  preferable,  as  they  allow  of 
tightening  up.  The  shearing  used  along  BF  should  be 
pine,  and  be  not  less  than  six  and  a  half  times  BC; 
and  BC  should  be  equal  to  at  least  twice  the  depth  of 
the  key.  The  shear  in  the  keys  being  at  right  angles 
lo  the  grain  of  th  ood,  a  greater  stress  per  square 
inch  of  shearing  .  .  can  be  put  upon  them  than 
along  BF,  but  their  shearing  area  should  be  equal  in 
b^renr^th  to  the  other  parts  of  the  joint;  oak  is  the 
best  wood  for  them,  as  its  shearing  is  from  four  tu  nve 
times  that  of  pin<?. 


ISO 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


Scarfed  jointo  v/ith  bolts  and  indents,  such  as  that 
shown  at  Fig  ;  i,  are  about  the  strongest  of  the  kind 
From  thiu  it  .vill  be  seen  that  the  strongest  and  mn=t 
economical  method  in  ever  way,  ir  lengthening  ties, 
IS  by  adoption  of  i.he  common  scarf  joint,  as  she,  n  at 
tig.  71,  and  finishing  the  scarf  as  there  represented. 

The    carpenter  ineets  with   many  conditions  when 
tmibers  of  various  "   nds  have  to  be  lengthened  out 


and  spliced,  as  in  the  case  of  wall  plates,  etc.,  where 
there  .s  not  much  tensile  stress.  In  such  cases  the 
timbers  may  simply  be  halved  together  and  securtd 
With  nails,  spikes,  bolts,  screws  or  pins,        they  may 


i 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


III 


be  halved  or  beveled  as  shown  in  Fig,  "jz,  which,  when 
loarded  above,  as  in  the  case  of  wall  plates  built  in 
the  w.  !,  or  as  stringers  on  which  partitions  are  set,  or 
joint  beams  on  which  the  lower  edges  of  the  joists  rest, 
will  hold  good  together. 

Treadgold  gives  the  following  rules,  based  upon  the 
relative  resistance  to  tension,  crushing  and  shearing 
of  different  woods,  for  the  proportion  which  the  length 
or  overlap  of  a  scarf  should  bear  to  the  depth  of  the 
tie: 

Without  With  With  txjltt 

tioUs  bolts  aud  indent* 

Oak,  ash,  elm,  etc.    .     .      6  3  2 

Pine  and  similar  woods  .     12  6  4 

There  are  many  other  kinds  of  scarfs  that  will  occur 
to  the  workman,  but  it  is  thought  the  foregoing  may 
be  found  useful  on  special 
occasions.  »  *^^ 

A  few  examples  of  odd 
joints  in  timber  work  will 
not  be  out  of  place.  It 
sometimes  happens  that 
cross-beams  are  required 
to  be  fitted  in  between 
girders  in  position,  as  in 
renewing  a  defective  one,  and  when  this  has  to  be 
done,  and  a  mortise  and  tenon  joint  is  used,  a  chase 
has  to  be  cut  leading  into  the  mortise,  as  shown  in  the 
horizontal  section,  Fig  73.  By  inserting  the  tenon  at 
the  other  end  A  the  beams  into  a  mortise  cut  so  as  to 
allow  of  fitting  it  in  at  an  anele,  the  tenon  can  be  slid 
along  the  chase  b  into  its  proper  position.  It  is  better 
in  this  case  to  dispense  with  the  long  tenon,  and,  if 
necessary,  to  substitute  a  bolt,  as  showr  in  the  sketch. 
A  mortise  of  this  kind  is  called  a  chase  mortise,  but  an 


jl    Fig. 7 3. 


ir 


M^ 


sit 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


W^ 


FiS.74. 


^ 


iron  shoe  made  fast  to  the  u'ndcr  forms  a  better  meatis 
of  carrying  the  end  of  a  cross-beam.  The  beams  can 
be  secured  to  the  shoe  with  bolts  or  other  fastenings. 
To  support  the  end  of  a  horizontal  beam  or  girt  on 
the  side  of  a  post,  the  joint  shewn  in  Fig.  74  may  be 

used  where  the  mortise  for 
the  long  tenon  is  placed,  to 
weaken  the  post  as  little  as 
possible,  and  the  tenon  made 
about  one-third  the  thickness 
of  the  beam  on  which  it  is  cut. 
The  amount  of  bearing  the 
beam  has  on  the  post  must 
greatly  depend  on  the  work  it 
has  to  do.  A  hardwood  pin 
can  be  passed  through  the 
cheeks  of  fhe  mortise  and  the  tenon  as  shown  to  keep 
Ihe  latter  in  position,  the  holes  being  dr^iw-iored  ia 
crder  to  bring  the  shoulders  of  the  tenon  tight  home 
agamst  the  post,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  overdo 
the  draw-boring  or  the  wood  at  the  end  of  the  tenon 
will  be  forced  out  by  the 
pin.  The  usual  rule  for 
draw-boring  is  to  a. low  a 


UA 


quarter  of  an  inch  (irazc  in 

soft  woods  and  one-eighth 

of  an  inch  for  hard  woods. 

These  allowances  may  seem  rather  large,  but  it  must 

be  remembered  that  both  holes  in  tenon  and  mortise 

will  give  a  little,  so  also  will  the  draw  pin  itself  unless 

It  is  of  iron,  an  uncommon  circumstance. 

Instead  of  a  mortise  and  tenon,  an  iron  strap  or  a 
screw  bolt  or  nut  may  be  used,  similiar  to  that  showr 
in  Fig.  75. 


PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES 


"3 


W 


The  end  of  the  beam  may  also  be  supported  on  a 
block  which  should  be  of  hardwood,  spiked  or  bolted 
.  on  to  the  side  of  the 

V^  post,  as  at  A  and  B, 

Fig.  76.  The  end  of 
the  beam  may  either 
be  tenoned  into  the 
post  as  shown,  or  it 
may  have  a  shoulder, 
with  the  end  of  the 
beam  beveled,  as 
shown  at  A. 

Heavy  roof  tim- 
bers are  rapidly  giv- 
ing place  to  steel,  but 
there  yet  remain 
many  cases  where 
timbers  will  remain  employed  and  the  old  method  of 
framing  continued.  The  use  of  iron  straps  and  bolts 
in  fastening  timbers  together  or  for  trussing  purposes 
will  never  perhaps  become  obsolete,  therefore  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  proper  use  of 
these  will  always  remain 
valuable. 

Heel  straps  are  used  to 
sjcure  the  joints  between 
inclined  struts  and  hori- 
zontal beams,  such  as  the 
joints  between  rafters  and 
bjams.  They  may  be  placed  either  so  as  m^r.ly  to 
hold  the  beams  close  together  at  the  joints,  us  in  Fig. 
7,-.  or  so  as  to  directly  resist  the  thrust  of  the  inclined 
Jirut  and  prevent  it  from  shearing  off  the  portion  of 
the  horizontal  beam  against  which   it  presses.     Straps 


IM 


'  iul 


I 


»t4 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


of  the  former  kind  are  sometimes  called  kicking-straps. 
The  example  shown  at  Fig.  yj  is  a  good  form  of  strap 
for  holding  a  principal  rafter  down  ..t  the  foot  of  the 
tie  beam.     The  screws  and  nuts  are   prevented  from 
sinking  into  the  wood  by  the  bearing  plate  B,  which 
acts  as  a  washer  on  which  the  nuts  ride  when  tighten- 
ing is  done.     A  check  plate  is  also  provided  under- 
neath   to    prevent 
the    strap   cutting 
into  the  tie  beam. 
At  Fig.  78  I  show 
a    form    of     joint 
often  used,  but  it 
represents  a  diflfi- 
culty     in     getting 
the    two     parallel 
abutments  to  take 
their  fair  share  of 
the  work,  both 
from  want  of  accu- 
racy in  workman- 
ship   as    well     as 
from    the   disturb- 
ing    influence     of 
shrinkage.     In 
making  a  joint  of  this  sort,  care  must  be  taken  that 
sufficient  wood  is  left  between  the  abutments  and  the 
end  of  the  tie  beam   to   prevent   sliearin^'.     A   little 
judgment  in   using  straps  will  often   save  both   time 
and  money  and  yet  be  sufficient  for  all  purposes 

I  show  a  few  examples  of  strengthening  and  trussing 
joints,  girders,  and  timbers  at  Fig  79.  The  diagrams 
need  no  explanation,  as  tht-y  are  self-evident. 

It  would  expand  this  book  far  beyond  the  dimensions 


if 

I 


PRACTIC/L   EXAMPLES 


"S 


awarded  me,  to  even  touch  on  all  matters  pertaining 
to  carpentry,  including  bridges,  trestles,  trussed  gird- 
ers and  trusses  generally,  so  I   must  conte.u  myself 


I 


»-ie 


HpW 


a 


3 


Fig,  79i 

with  what  has  already  be  n  given  on  the  subject  of 
oarpentry,  although,  as  the  reader  is  aware,  the  subject 
IS  onlv  surfaced. 


I 


is] 


PART   III 


JOINER'S   WORK 


CHAPTER   T 


KERFIVr.    RAKING    MOULDINr 


- PERS    AND   SPLAYS 


4 


^iff-  1. 


/ 


^ 


This  departmLiit  could  be  ^  -lendcd  indefinitely,  af? 
the  problems  in  joinery  are  much  more  numerous  than 
in  carpentry,  but  as  the  limits  of  this  book  will  not 
jtermit  me  to  cover  the  whole  range  of  the  art,  even  if 
^  I  were  competent,   I 

must  be  contented 
with  dealing  with 
those  problems  the 
workman  will  nost 
likely  be  confronted 
with  in  his  daily  oc- 
cupation. 
First  of  all,  I  give  several  methods  of  "kerfing,"  for 
lew  things  puzzle  the  novice  more  than  this  little 
problem.  Let  us  suppose  any  circle  around  which  it 
is  desired  to  bend  a  piece  of  stuff  to  be  2  inches  larger 
on  the  outside  than  on  the  inside,  or  in  other  words, 
the  veneer  is  to  be  i  inch  thick,  then  take  out  as  many 
•iaw  kerfs  as  will  measure  2  inches.  Thus,  if  a  saw 
cuts  a  kerf  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  in  width,  then 
ii  will  take  64  kerfs  in  the  half  circle  to  ^ilow  for  the 

"7 


=1 


ii8 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


! 


! 
1 
i 

i 


veneer  to  bend    around    neatly.      The    piece    being 
placed  in    position  and  bent,  the  kerfs  will  exactly 
close. 
Another  way  is  to  saw  one  kerf  near  the  center  of 
the    piece  to   be  bent,   then  place   it  on 
the  plan  of  the  frame,  as  indicated  in  the 
sketch  and  bend  it  until  the  kerf  closes. 
The  distance,  DC,  Fig.  I,  on  the  line  DB, 
will  be  the  space  between  the  kerfs  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  bending. 

In  kerfing  the  workman  should  be  care- 
ful to  use  the  same  saw  throughout,  and  to 
cut  exactly  the  same  depth  every  time,  and 
the  spaces  must  be  of  equal  distance.  In 
diagram  Fig.  I,  DA  shows  the  piece  to 
be  bent,  and  at  O  the  thickness  of  the 
stuff  is  shown,  also  path  of  the  inside  and 
uutside  of  the  circle. 

Another,  and  a  safe  method  of  kerfing 

is  shown  at  Fig. 
2,  in  which  it  is 
desired  to  bend 
a  piece  as 
shown,  and 
w  h  i  c  h  is  in- 
tended to  be 
secured  at  the 
ends.  Up  to  A 
is  the  piece  to 
be  treated. 
First  gauge  a  line  on  about  one-eighth  inch  back  from 
the  face  edges,  and  try  how  far  it  will  yield  when  the 
first  cut  is  made  up  to  the  gauge  line,  being  cut  perfectly 
straight  through  from  side  to  side,  then  place  the  work 


P'^9-  2.       I Vi 


JOINER'S  WORK 


119 


on  a  flat  board  and  try  it  gently  until  the  kerf  closes, 
and  it  goes  as  far  as  is  shown  at  A,  which  is  the  first 
cut,  B  representing  the  second.  Those  are  the  dis- 
tances the  kerfs  require  to  be  placed  apart  to  complete 
the  curve.  Try  the  work  as  it  progresses.  This  eases 
the  back  of  it  and  makes  it  much  easier  done  when  the 
whole  cuts  are  finished.  Now  make  certain  that  ,  >j 
job  will  fold  to  the  curve,  then  fill  them  all  with  hot 
glue  and  proceed  to  fix.  The  plan  shown  here  is  a 
half  semi,  and 
may  Le  in  excess 
cf  what  is  wanted, 
but  the  principle 
holds  good. 

Another  method 
is  shown  at  Fig.  3 
for  determining 
the     number    and 

distances  apart  of  the  saw  kerfs  required  to  bend  a 
board  round  a  corner.  The  board  is  first  drawn  in 
position  and  a  half  of  it  divided  into  any  number  of 
equal  parts  by  radii,  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.  A  straight 
piece  is  then  marked  off  to  cor-espond  with  the  divi- 
sions on  the  circular  one.  By  this  it  is  seen  that  the 
part  XX  must  be  cut  away  by  saw  kerfs  in  order  to  let 
the  board  turn  round.  It  therefore  derends  upon  the 
thickness  of  the  saw  for  the  number  of  kerfs,  and  when 
that  is  known  the  distances  apart  can  be  determined  as 
shown  on  the  right  in  the  figure.  Here  eight  kerfs  are 
assumed  to  be  requisite. 

To  make  a  kerf  for  bending  round  an  ellipse,  such  as 
that  shown  at  Fig.  4,  proceed  as  shown,  CC  and  GO 
being  the  distances  for  the  kerfs;  2  to  2  and  2  to  3  are  the 
lengths  of  the  points  EF,  while  BB  is  the  length  of  the 


T30 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


i  i 


I 


points  EE,  making  the  whole  head  piece  in  one.  In 
case  it  is  necessary  to  joint  D,  leave  the  ends  about  8 
inches  longer  than  is  necessary,  as  shown   by  N  in  the 


sketch,   so   that   should    a  breakage  occur  this  extra 
length  may  be  utilized. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  bend  thick  stuff  around 
work  that  is  on  a  rake,  and  when  this  is  required,  all 
that  is  necessary  is  to  run  in  the  kerfs  the  angle  of  the 
rake  whatever  that  may  be,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  5.  This  rule  holds 
good  for  all  pitches  or  rakes. 
Fig.  6  shows  a  very  common 
way  of  obtaining  the  distance 
to  place  the  kerfs.  The  piece 
to  be  kerfed  is  shown  at  C; 
now  make  one  at  E;  hold  firm 
the  lower  part  of  C  and  bend  Fias.  6. 


i  i, 


JOINER'S  WORK 


nx 


the  upper  end  on  the  circle  F  until  the  kerf  is  closed. 
The  line  started  at  £  and  cutting  the  circumference  of 
the  circle  indicates  at  the  circumference  the  distance 
the  saw  kerfs  will  be  apart.  Set  the  dividers  to  this 
space,  and  be- 
ginning at  the 
center  cut, 
space  the  piece 
to  be  kerfed 
both  ways. 
Use  the  same 
saw  in  all  cuts 
and  let  it  be 
clean  and  keen, 
with  all  dust 
well  cleaned 
out. 

To    miter 
mouldings, 

where  straight  lines  must  merge  into  lines  having  a 
curvature  as  in  Figs.  7  and  8:  In  all  cases,  where  a 
straight  moulding  is  intersected  with  a  curved  mould- 
ing of  the  same  profile  at  whatever  angle,  the  miter  is 
necessarily  other  than  a  straight  line.     The  miter  line 

is  found  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  lines  from  the 
several  points  of  the  pro- 
file as  they  occur  respect- 
ively in  the  straight  and 
the  curved  mouldings. 
In  order  to  find  the  miter 
between  two  such  mould- 
ings, first  project  lines 
from  all  of  the  points  of 


132 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


t  i 


the  profile  indefinitely  to  the  right,  as  shown  in  the 
elevation  of  the  sketch.  Now,  upon  the  center  line  of 
the  curved  portion,  or  upon  any  line  radiating  from 
the  center  around  which  the  curved  moulding  is  to  be 

carried,  set  off  the 
several    points    of 
the    profile,   spac- 
ing th.-m   exactly 
the  same  as  they 
are   in   the    eleva- 
tion of  the  straight 
moulding.      Place 
one     leg    of    the 
dividers     at    the 
center  of  the  cir- 
cle, bringing  the  other  leg  to  each  of  the  several  points 
upon  the  curved  moulding,  and  carry  lines  around  the 
curve,  intersecting  each  with   a  horizontal   line  from 
the  corresponding  point  of  the  level   moulding.     The 
dotted   line    drawn   through    the   intersections  at   the 
miter    shows    what 
must     be     the     real 
miter  line. 

Another  odd  miter- 
ing  of  this  class  is 
shown  in  Fig.  g.  In 
this  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  plain  faces 
of  the  stiles  and 
circular  rail  form 
junctions,  the  mould- 
ings all  being  mi- 
tercd.  The  miters 
are   curved  in  order 


JOINER'S   WORK 


I  as 


Fi^.U, 


to  have  all  the  members  of  the  mouldings  merge  in 
one  another  without  overwood.  Another  example  is 
shown  at  Fig.  to,  where  the  circle  and  mouldings 
make  a  series  of  panels.  These  examples  are  quite 
sufficient  to  enable  the 
workman  to  deal  effect- 
ively with  every  prob- 
lem of  this  kind. 

The  workman  some- 
times finds  it  a  little 
difficult  to  lay  out  a  hip 
rafter  for  a  veranda  that 
has  a  curved  roof.  A 
very  easy  method  of  finding  the  curve  of  the  hip  is 
shown  at  Fig.  il.  Let  AB  be  the  length  of  the  angle 
or  seat  of  hip,  and  CO  the  curve;  raise  perpendicular 

en  AB,  as  shown, 
same  as  those  on 
DO,  and  trace 
through  the  points 
obtained,  and  the 
thing  is  done. 

Another  simple 
way  of  finding  the 
hip  for  a  single  curve 
is  shown  at  Fig.  12; 
A  J  represents  the 
curve  given  the  com- 
mon rafter. 


-HT^ 


4 Run  — 


Now  lay  off  any  number  of  lines  parallel  with  the 
seat  from  the  rise,  to  and  beyond  the  curve  AB,  as 
shown,  and  for  each  inch  in  length  of  these  lines 
(between  rise  and  curve),  add  j%  of  an  inch  to  the 
same  line  to  the  left  of  the  curve,  and  check.     After 


I 


tM 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


i; 

1 

1 

u 

all  hnes  have  thus  been  measured,  run  an  off-hand 
curve  through  the  checks,  and  the  curve  will  represent 
the  corresponding  hip  at  the  center  of  its  back. 

To  find  the  bevel 
or  backing  of  the  hip 
to  coincide  with  the 
plane  of  the  common 
rafter,  measure  back 
on  the  parallel   lines 
to   the   right  of  the 
curve    one-half     the 
thickness  of  the  hip 
and    draw    another 
curve,  which  will  be 
the  lines  on  the  side 
to  trim  to  from   the 
center  of   the  back. 
A  like  amount  must 
be     added     to    the 
plumb  cut  to  fit  the 
corner  of  deck.     Pro- 
ceed in  like  manner 
for  the  octagon  hip, 
but  instead  of  adding 
Vs,  add  ^^j  of  an  inch 
as  before  described. 

[While  this  is 
worked  cut  on  a  giv- 
en rise  and  run  for  the 

rafter,  the  rule  is  applicable  to  any  rise  or  run,  as  the 

workman  will  readily  understand.] 
A  more  elaborate  system  for  obtaining  the  curve  of  a 

hip  rafter,  where  the  common  rafters  have  an  ogee  or 

concave  and  convex  shape,  is  shown  at  Fig.  12}4.     This 


JOINER'S  WORK 


195 


h  a  very  old  method,  and  is  shown — with  slight  varia- 
tions— in  nearly  all  the  old  works  on  carpentry  and 
joinery.  Draw  the  seat  of  the  common  rafter,  AB, 
and  rise,  AC.  Then  draw  the  curve  of  the  common 
rafter,  CB.  Now  divide  the  base  line,  AB,  into  any 
number  of  equal  spaces,  as  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc  ,  and  draw 
perpendicular  lines  to  construct  the  curve  CB,  as  10, 
20,  30,  40,  etc.  Now  draw  the  seat  of  the  valley,  or 
hip  rafter,  as  BD,  and  continue  the 
perpendicular  lines  referred  o  until 
they  meet  BD,  thus  establishing  the 
points  10,  II,  12,  13,  14,  etc.  From 
these  points  draw  lines  at  right 
angles  to  BD,  making  10  x  equal  in 
length  to  I  o,  and  11  x  equal  to  2  o; 


H 


also  12  X  equal  to  3  o.  and  so  on.  When  this  has  been 
done  draw  through  the  points  indicated  by  x  the 
curve,  which  is  the  profile  of  the  vallev  rafters. 

Another  method,  based  on  the  same  principles 
Fig.  12  J^,  is  shown  at  Fig.  13.     Let  ABCFEO  represent 
the  plan  of  the  roof.    FCG  represents  the  profile  of  the 
wide  side  of  common  rafter.    First  divide  this  common 
rafter,  GC,  into  any  number  of  -i.-irts — in  this  case  6. 


1 


ia6 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


Transfer  these  points  to  the  miter  line  EB,  or,  what  k 
the  same,  the  line  in  the  plan  representing  the  hip 
rafter  From  the  points  thus  established  at  E,  erect 
perpendiculars  indefinitely  With  the  dividers  take 
the  distance  from  the  points  in  the  line  FE,  measur- 
ing to  the  points  in  the  profile  GC,  and  set  the  same 
off  on  corresponding  lines,  measuring  from  EB,  thus 
establishing  the  points   i.  2,  etc.;    then  a  line  traced 

through  these 
points  will  be  the 
required  hip  rafter. 
For  the  com- 
mon rafter,  on  thi; 
narrow  side,  con- 
tinuethe  lines  from 
EB  parallel  with 
the  lines  of  th.: 
plan  DE  and  AB. 
Draw  AD  at  right 
angle,  to  these 
lines.  With  the 
dividers,  as  before,  measuring  from  FE  to  the  points 
in  GC,  set  off  corresponding  distances  from  AD,  thus 
establishing  the  points  shown  between  A  and  H.  A 
line  traced  through  the  points  thus  obtained  will  be 
the  line  of  the  rafter  on  the  narrow  side. 

These  examples  are  quite  sufficient  to  enable  the 
workman  to  draw  the  exact  form  of  any  rafter  no  mat- 
ter what  the  curve  of  its  face  may  be,  or  whether  it  is 
£or  a  veranda  hip,  or  an  angle  bracket,  for  a  cornice 
or  niche. 

Another  class  of  angular  curves  the  workman  will 
meet  with  occasionally,  is  that  when  raking  mould- 
ings  are   used    to   work    in    level   mouldings,    as   for 


%.  14. 


JOINER'S  WORK 


irj 


instance,  a  moulding  down  a  gable  that  is  to  miter. 
The  figures  shaded  in  Fig.  14  represent  the  mould- 
ing in  its  various  phases  and  angles.  Draw  the  out- 
line of  the  common  level  moulding,  as  shown  at  F,  in 
the  same  position  as  if  in  its  place  on  the  building. 
T  raw  lines  through  as  many  prominent  points  in  the 
profile  as  may  be  convenient,  parallel  with  the  line  of 
rake.  From  the  same  points  in  the  moulding  draw  ver-  * 
tical  lines,  as  shown  by  iH,  2,  3,  4  and  5,  etc.  From 
the  point  I,  square  with  the  lines  of  the  rake,  draw  iM, 


as  shown,  and  from  i  as  center,  with  the  dividers 
transfer  the  divisions  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  as  shown,  and  from 
the  points  thus  obtained,  on  the  upper  line  of  the  rake 
draw  lines  parallel  to  iM.  Where  these  lines  intersect 
with  the  lines  of  the  rake  w-ill  be  points  through  '  'ch 
the  outline  C  may  be  traced. 

In  case  there  is  a  moulded  head  to  put  upon  a  raking 


138 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


■ 


gabli-.  the  moulding  D  shown  at  the  ripht  hand  must 
be  worked  out  for  the  uppe  .  .c.  The  manner  in 
which  this  is  done  is  self-evident  upon  examination 
of  the  drawint,'.  and  therefore  needs  no  special 
description. 

A  good  example  of  a  raking  moulding  and  its  appli- 
cations to  actual  work  is  shown  in  Fig.  15,  on  a  differ- 
ent scale.  The  ogee  moulding  at  the  lower  end  is  the 
regular  moulding,  while  the  middle  line,  a.t,  shows 
the  shape  of  the  raking  moulding,  and  the  curve  on 


the  top  end,  cdo,  shows  the  face  of  a  moulding  that 
would  be  required  to  return  horizontally  at  that  point. 
The  manner  of  pricking  off  these  curves  is  shown  by 
the  letters  and  figures. 

At  Fig.  16  a  finished  piece  of  wo-rk  is  shown,  where 
this  manner  of  work  will  be  required,  on  the  returns. 

Fig.  17  shows  the  same  mrulding  ;)plied  to  a 
curved  window  or  door  head.  The  manner  of  pricking 
the  curv"  is  given  in  Fig.  18. 

At  No.  2  draw  any  line,  AD,  to  the  center  of  the 


JOINERS    WORK 


nj 


pediment,  meeting  the  upper  edge  of  the  up[»er  fillet 
in  D,  and  intersecting  the  lines  AAA,  aaa,  bbb,  ccc. 


Fig.  ir 


BBB  in  A,  a,  b,  c,  B,  E.    From  these  points  draw  lines 
aa,  bb,  cc,  BB,  EE,  tangents  to  their  respective  arcs; 


130 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


on  the  tangent  line  DE,  froin  D,  make  Dd,  Dr.  D/ 
PE,  respectively  equal  to  the  distances  D</,  D**,  D/ 
DE  on  the  level  line  DE,  at  No.  I.  Through  the 
points  d,  e, /,  E,  draw  da,  ed, /r,  EB,  then  the  curve 
drawn  through  the  points  A,  a,  b,  c,  B,  will  be  the  sec- 
tion of  the  cinular  moiilcHnn. 
Sometimes  mouldings  for  this  k.nd  of  work  are  made 

of  thin  stuff, 


5l 


1 


%  1 9. 


7 


% 


f 


and  are  bev- 
eled on  \e 
back  at  ..he 
bottom  in 
such  a  man- 
ner that  the 
top  portion 
of  the  mem- 
ber hangs 
over,  which 
gives  it  the 
appearance 
of  being 
solid. 
Mo  u  1  dings 
of  this  kind 
are  called 
"spring  mouldings."  and  much  care  is  required  in 
mitering  them.  This  should  always  be  done  in  a 
miter  box,  which  must  be  made  for  the  purpose;  often 
two  boxes  are  required,  as  shown  in  Figs.  19-22.  The 
cuts  across  the  box  are  regular  miters,  while  the  angles 
down  the  side  are  the  same  as  the  down  cut  of  the 
rafter,  or  plumb  cut  of  the  moulding.  When  the  box 
is  ready,  place  the  mouldings  in  it  upside  down,  keep- 
ing the  moulded  side  to  the  front,  as  seen  in  Fig.  20^ 


\A 


Fig.  20 


F^'g.  2.2. 


i^ 


JOINER'S  WORK 


1)1 


making  sure  that  the  level  of  the  moulding  at  c   fits 
close  to  the  side  of  the  box. 

To  miter  the  rake  numldinfjs  together  at    the  top, 

the  box  shown  in  Fig.  21  is  used.     Th(>  angles  on  the 

top  of    the  box    are 

the    same    as     the 

down    bevel    at    the 

top  of  the  rafter,  the 

sides     being     sawed 

down    square.       Put 

the  moulding  in  the 

box,    as     shown     in 

Fig.  22,  keeping  the 

bevel  at  c  flat  on  the 

bottom    of   the  box, 

and    having   the 

moulded  side  to  the 

front,  and   the  miter 

for   the   top    is   cut, 

which  completes  the 

moulding     for     one 

side    of    the    gable. 

The    miter    for    the 

top  of  the  moulding 

for  the  other  side  of 

the  gable  may  then 

be  cut. 

When  the  rake 
moulding  is  made  of 
the  proper  form  these 
boxes  are  very  con- 
venient; but  a  preat 
deal  of  the  machine- 
made  mouldings  are 


H 


ija 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


not  of  the  proper  form  to  fit.  In  such  cases  the 
moulding  should  be  made  to  suit,  or  they  come  bad; 
although  many  use  the  mouldings  as  they  "ir.ie.  f-om 
the  factory,  and  trim  the  miters  so  as  to  xjake  tluin 
do. 

The    instructions  given,  however,  in  Fi^  -.  !.^.  li,  15 

and  18  will  enaolvi 
the  workman  to 
make  patterns  for 
what  he  requires. 
While  the 
"angle  bar"  is  not 
much  in  vogue  at 
the  present  time, 
the  methods  by 
which  ii  is  ob- 
tained, may  be  ap- 
plied to  many  pur- 
poses, so  it  is  but 
proper  the  method 
should  be  em- 
bodied  in  this 
work.  In  Fig.  23, 
B  is  a  common 
sash  bar,  and  C  is 
the  angle  bar  of 
the  same  thick- 
ness. Take  the  raking  projection,  1 1,  in  C,  and  set  the 
foot  of  your  compass  in  i  at  B,  and  cross  the  middle 
of  the  bar  at  the  other  i;  then  draw  the  points  2,  2,  3.  3, 
etc.,  parallel  to  1 1,  then  prick  your  bar  at  C  from  the 
ordinates  so  drawn  at  B,  which,  when  traced,  will  give 
the  angle  bar. 
This  is  a  simple  operation,  and  may  be  applied  to 


Fig:  21 


-Xh^my 


JOINER'S  WORK 


133 


many  other  cases,  and  for  enlarging  or,  diminishing 

mouldings  or  other  work. 
The  next  figure,   24,   gives  the  lines  for  a  raking 

moulding,  such  as  a  cornice  in  a  room  with  a  sloping 

ceiling       As    may    be 

seen  from  the    'iagram 

the     three    sections 

s'   )wn  are  drawn  equal 

in  thickness  to  miter  at 

the  angles  of  the  room. 
The  construction 

should  be  easily  under- 
stood    When  a  straight 

moulding     is     mitered 

with  a  curved  one  the 

line  of   miter  is  some- 
times straight  and  sometimes  curved,  as  seen  at  Fig. 

18,  and  when  the  mouldings  are  all  curved  the  miters 

are  also  straight  and  curved,  as  shown  in  previous 

examples. 
If  it  is  desired  to  make  a  cluster  column  of  wood,  it 

is  first  necessary  to  make  a  standard  or  core,  which  must 

have  as  many  sides  as  there  are  to  be  faces  of  columns. 
Fig.  25  shows  how  the  work  is 
done.  This  shows  a  cluster  of 
four  columns,  which  are  nailed  to 
a  square  standard  or  core.  Fig. 
26  shows  the  base  of  a  clustered 
column.  These  are  blocks  iarned 
in  the  lathe,  requiring  four  of 
them  for  each  base,  which  are  cut 
and  mitered  as  shown  in  Fig.  25. 
The  cap,  or  capital,  is,  of  course, 
cut  in  the  same  maaaer. 


^ig.  2ti. 


-'.••'■A  t  :..!«.  vu 


»34 


MODERN   CARPEN-T^RY 


Laying  out  lines  for  hopper  cuts  is  often  puzzling, 
and  on  this  account  I  will  devote  more  space  to  this 
subject  than  to  those  requiring  less  explanations. 

Fig.  27  shows  an  isometric  view  of  three  sides  of  a 
hopper.  The  fourth  side,  or  end,  is  purposely  left 
out,  in  order  to  show  the  exact  build  of  the  hopper. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  AC  and  EO  show  the  end  of  the 

work  as  squared 
up  from  the  bot- 
tom, and  that  BC 
shows  the  gain  of 
the  splay  or  flare. 
This  gives  the  idea 
of  what  a  hopper 
is,  though  the 
width  of  side  and 
amount  of  flare 
may  be  any  meas- 
urement that  may 
be  'ed  upon. 

Th  culty    in 

this  n'ork  is  to  get 
the  proper  lines  for  the  miter  and  for  a  butt  cut. 

Let  us  suppose  the  flare  of  the  sides  aud  ends  to  be 
as  shown  at  V\^.  28,  though  any  flare  or  inclination 
will  answer  c(|ual]y  well.  This  diagram  and  the  plan 
exiiibit  the  method  to  be  employed,  where  the  sides 
and  ends  are  to  be  mitcrcd  together.  To  obtain  the 
bevel  t'l  ap])!y  for  the  side  cut.  use  A'  as  center,  W  as 
radius,  and  CDF'  parallel  to  P.F.  Project  from  B  to 
D  parallel  to  XY.  Join  AD,  which  gives  the  bevel 
required,  as  shown.  If  the  top  ed'^e  of  the  stuff  is  to  be 
horizontal,  as  shown  at  \VG',  the  bevel  to  apply  to  the 
edge  will  be  simply  as  shown   in  plan  by   IKj;  but  if 


isfvifvr^' 


Sr»._^».'.*''.^- 


'  m:4:^.rtu  f 


"1^ 


JOINERS   WORK 


m 


the  edffe  of  the  stuff  is  to  be  square  to  the  side,  as 
show  n  at  B'C,  Fig  29,  the  bevel  must  be  obtained  as 
follows:  Produce  t.W  to  D',  as  indicated,  Fig.  29. 
With  B  as  center,  describe  the  arc  from  C,  which 
gives  the  point  D.     Project  down  from  D,  making  DF 


IJarallel  to  CC,  as  shown.  Project  from  C  parallel  to 
XV  This  will  give  the  point  D.  Jom  BD,  and  this 
will  give  the  bevel  line  required.  At  A,  Fig.  31,  is 
shown  the  application  of  the  bevel  to  the  side  of  the 
stuff,  and  at  B  the  application  of  the  bevel  to  the  edge 
of  the  stuff.  When  the  ends  butt  to  the  sides,  as  indi- 
cated at  H,  Fig.  30,  the  bevel,  it  will  be  noticed,  is 
obtained  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  shown  at  Fig.  28. 
It  is  not  often  that  simply  a  butt  joint  is  used  between 


'M':'Mr<SM'  ^ 


I3« 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


the  ends  and  sides,  but  the  ends  are  usually  housed 
into  the  sides,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  shown 
at  H,  Fig.  30. 

Another  system,  which  was  first  taught  by  tlu-  cele- 
brated   Peter    Nicholson,    and    afterwards    l)y   Robert 

Riddell,  of 
r  h  i  1  a  d  e  I . 
phia,  is  ex- 
plained in 
t  h  e  follow 
i  n  g :  The 
i  1  1  u  s  t  r  a  • 
tion  siiown  at 
rig.  3.1  is  in- 
t  e  n  d  e  tl  to 
show  how  to 
find  the  lines 
for  c  u  1 1  i  ng 
butt  joints 
for  a  iiopper. 
Construct  a 
right  angle, 
as  A,  B,  C, 
Fig.  32,  con- 
tinue A,  B 
pastK.  From 
K,  B  make 
the  inclinat-on  of  the  sides  of  the  hopper,  2,  3. 

Draw  3,  4  at  right  angles  with  3,  2;  take  3  as  center, 
and  itrike  an  arc  touching  the  lower  line,  cutting  in  4. 
Draw  from  4,  cutting  the  miter  line  in  5;  from  5  square 
draw  1  line  cutting  in  6,  join  it  and  B;  this  gives  bevel 
W,  as  the  direction  of  cut  on  the  surface  of  sides.  To 
find  the  butt  joint,  take  any  tv.     points.  A,  C,  00  the 


. 


JOINERS  WORK 


137 


right  angle,  equally  distant  from  B,  make  the  angL 

B,  K,  L,  equal  that  of  3,  K,  L,  shown  on  the  left;  from 

B  draw  through  point  L;    now  take  C  as  a  center,  and 

strike    an  arc,  touching    line  BL.      From  A  draw  a 

line  touching  the  arc  at  H,  and  cutting  the  extended 

line  through   B 

in  N,  thus  fixing 

N   as   a    point. 

Then  by  draw- 

i  n  g    from    C 

through   N,   we 

get    the    bevel 

X   for  the  butt 

joint.     Joints 

on  the  ends  of 

timbers  running 

horizontally    in 

tapered  framed 

structures,  when 

the    plan    is 

square   and  the 

inclinations 

equal,    may    be 

found    by    this 

method. 

The  backing 

of  a  hip  rafter  may  also  be  obtained  by  this  method,  as 
shown  at  J,  where  the  pitch  line  is  used  as  at  2,  3, 
which  would  be  the  inclination  of  the  roof. 

The  solution  just  rendered  is  intended  only  for  hop- 
pers having  right  angles  and  equal  pitches  or  splays, 
as  hoppers  having  acute  or  obtuse  angles,  must  be 
treated  in  a  slightly  different  way. 

Let  us  suppose  a  butt  joint  for  a  hopper  having  an 


138 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


acute  anpV,  such  as  shown  at  A,  B,  C,  Fig.  33,  and 
with  an  ii.clinaticn  as  shown  at  2,  3.  Take  any  two 
points,  A,  C,  equally  distant  from  B.  Join  A,  C, 
bisect  this  line  in  P,  draw  through  P,  indefinitely. 
Find  a  bevel  for  the  side  cut  by  drawing  3,  4,  ,  juare 
with  2,  3;  take  3  as  a  center,  and  strike  an  arc,  touch- 
ing the  lower  line  cutting  in  4;   draw  from  4,  cutting 


the  miter  line  in  5,  and  from  it  square  draw  a  line 
cutting  in  6.  Join  6,  B,  this  gives  bevel  W,  for  direc- 
tion of  cut  on  the  surface  of  inclined  sides. 

The  bevel  for  a  butt  joint  is  found  by  drawing  C,  8, 
square  with  A,  B;  make  the  angle  8,  K,  L,  equal  that 
cf  3,  K.  L,  shown  on  the  Icll.  Draw  from  8  through  point 
L;  take  C  as  a  center  and  strike  an  arc  touching  the 
line  8,  L;   draw  from  A,  touching  the  arc  at  D,  cutting 


if^'^KlBfe  "1/ 


JOINER'S   WORK 


139 


the  line  from  P,  in  D,  making  it  a  point,  then  by 
drawing  from  C,  through  D,  we  get  the  bevel  X  for 
the  butt  joint. 

As  stated  regarding  the  previous  illustration,  the 
backing  for  a  hip  in  a  roof  having  the  pitch  as  shown 
at  2,  3,  may  be  found  at  the  bevel  J.     The  same  rule 


also  applies  to  end  joints  on  timbers  placed  in  a  hori- 
zontal double  inclined  frame,  having  an  acute  angle 
same  as  described. 

Having  described  the  methods  for  finding  the  butt 
joints  in  right-angled  and  acute-angled  hoppers,  it  will 
be  proper  now  to  define  a  method  for  describing  an 
obtuse-angled  hopper  having  butt  joints. 

Let  the  inclination  of  the  sides  of  the  hopper  be 


SiiijfiLi 


j:^^:^,.^.±,^.^1Az    ..y^    ''mi:^' 


MO 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


exhibited  at  the  line  2,  3,  and  the  angle  of  the  obtuse 
corner  of  the  !  opper  at  A,  B,  C,  then  to  find  the  joint, 
take  any  two  points,  A,  C,  eqfially  distant  from  B, 
join  these  points,  and  divide  the  line  at  P.  Draw 
through  P  and  P  indefinitely.  At  any  distance  below 
the  side  A,  B,  draw  the  line  2,  6;  make  3.  4,  square 
with  the  inclination.  F.om  3.  as  a  render,  describe 
an  arc.  touching  the  lower  line  and  cutting'  in  4;  from 
4  draw  to  cut  the  miter  line  in  5,  and  from  it  square 


down  r    line  cutting  in  6.  join  6,  B,  anc'  we  get  the 
bevel  V/.  for  cut  on  surface  sides. 

The  bevel  for  the  butt  joint  is  found  by  drawing  C, 
D,  square  with  B,  A,  and  making  the  angle  D,  K,  L 
equal  to  that  of  3,  K,  L  on  the  left.  From  C,  as  a 
renter,  strike  an  arc,  touching  the  line  D,  L;  then 
from  A  draw  a  line  touching  the  arc  H.  This  line 
hiving  cut  through  P,  in  N,  fixes  N  as  a  point,  so  that 
hy  drawing  0  through  N  an  angle  is  determined,  ia 
which  is  bevel  X  tor  the  butt  joint. 


:^.J«..'i:Jcif-^3.-M-^ 


.ai^A 


■V  ^' 


JOINER'S  WORK 


'41 


To  obtain  the  bevels  or  miters  is  a  simple  matter  to 
one  who  has  mastered  the  foregoing,  as  evidenced  by 
the  following: 

Fig.  34  shows  a  right-angled  hopper;  its  sides  may 
stand   on   any  inclination,  as  AB.     The  miter  line. 


2.  W,  on  the  plan,  being  fixed,  draw  B,  C  square  with 
the  inclination.  Then  from  B,  as  center,  strike  an  arc, 
touching  the  base  line  and  cutting  in  CD.  From  CD 
draw  parallel  with  the  base  line,  cutting  the  miters  in 
F  and  E;  and  from  these  points  square  down  the  lines, 
cutting  in  3  and  4.    From  2  draw  through  3;  this  gives 


bevel  W  for  the  direction  of  cut  on  the  surface  sides. 
Now  join  2,  4,  this  gives  bevel  X  to  miter  the  edges, 
which  in  ail  cases  must  be  square,  in  order  that  bevels 
may  be  properly  applied. 

Fig.  35  shows  a  plan  forming  an  acute-angled  hop- 


i 


.-■,»-diii>AgyA*T !  ---iL-  L 


H»  MODERN  CARPENTRY 

per  the  miter  line  beinff  2,  W.  The  sides  of  this  plan 
are  to  stand  on  the  inclination  AB.  Draw  hC  square 
with  the  .ncl.nation.  and  from  B.  as  center,  strike  an 
arc.  touchmjj  the  base  l,„e  and  cutting  in  CD.  Draw 
from  CD.  cuttmg  the  miter  line  at  K  and  F;  from  these 
points  square  down  the  lines,  cuttinfr  in  3  ..nd  4.  From 
2  draw  thruuKh4.  which  will  g,ve  bevel   W  to  miter 

X  for  r;    "  •'"•    /''""  ^"■"  -'   ''  ^^'"'^h  gives  bevel 
A  for  the  direction  of  cut  on  the  surface  of  sides 

F.g.  36  shows  an  obtuse-angled  hopper,  its  miter  line 
on  the  plan  be.ng  2  W.  and  the  inclination  of  sides 


B  as  cfnt  r  ^  l'"'""''  ^'^'^  '^'  inclination,  and  from 
c  ling  CD.  Draw  from  CD,  cutting  the  miter  in  F 
tlfU     K  u"'"  P"'"''  '^""'■'-^  ^«""  the  lines,  cut- 

no  fnthe  if  "^  ^'  ^^'^^'"^  f^^"^  '  "^'■-gh  the 
po.nt  below  E.  we  get  bevel  W  for  the  direction  of 

^i"tt  e^ges.'^""^^^'""^^  ^^'-^^  ^  ^'-  b-  Xto 
Jt  will  be  noticed  that  the  cuts  for  the  three  differ- 
en  angles  are  obtained  on  exactly  the  sam.  ..rincipi.. 
without  the  slightest  variation,  and  so  perfectly  simi 
pie  as  to  be  understood  by  a  glance  at  the  drawing 
The  workman  will  notice  that  in  each  of  the  angles  a 


liixit^m^i..^., 


JOINER'S  WORK 


MS 


i 


:(! 


«44 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


■ 


line  from  C,  cutting  the  miter,  invariably  gives  a  direc- 
tion for  the  surface  of  sides,  and  the  line  from  D 
directs  the  miter  on  their  edges. 

Unlike  many  other  systems  employed,  this  one  meets 
all  and  every  condition,  and  is  the  system  that  has 
been  employed  by  high  class  workmen  and  millwrights 
for  ages. 

One  more  example  on  hopper  work  and  I  am  done 
with  the  subject:  Suppose  it  is  desired  to  build  a 
hopper  similar  to  the  one  shown  at  Fig.  37,  several 

new  cor     •  t  i  o  n  s 
will  be  with, 

as  >  ill   L-    „een  by 
i.'     xamination  of 
the   obtuse   and 
acute   angles,   L 
and  P.    In  order  to 
work    this   out 
right    make   a 
d  i  a  g  r  a  m    1  i  k  e 
that  shown  at  Fig.  38,  where  the  line  AD  is  the  given 
base  line  on  which  the  slanting  side  of  hopper  or  box 
rises  at  any  angle  to  the  base  !ii  .,  as  CB,   and  the 
total   height  of  the  work  is   represented   by  the   line 
B,  E.     By  this  diagram  it  will  be  seen  thaf  the  hori- 
zontal  lines  or  bevels  of  the  slanting  sides  are  indi- 
cated by  the  bevel  Z. 

Having  got  this  diagram,  which  of  course  is  not 
drawn  to  scale,  well  in  hand,  the  ground  plan  of  the 
hopper  may  be  laid  down  in  such  a  shape  as  desired, 
with  the  sides,  of  course,  having  the  slant  xs  Piven  in 
Fig.  38. 

Take  T2,  3S,  Fig.  37,  as  a  part  of  the  plan,  then  set 
off  the  width  of  sides  equal  to  C,  B,  as  shown  in  Fig.  38. 


JOINER'S  WORK 


»45 


These  are  shown  to  intersect  at  P,  L  above;  then  draw 
lines  from  P,  L  llirough  2,  3,  until  thiy  intersect  at  C, 
as  the  dotted  lines  show.  Take  C  as  a  center,  and 
with  the  radius  A,  describe  the  semi-circle  A,  A.  and 
with  the  same  radius  transferred  to  C,  Fig.  3;;,  describe 
the  arc  A,  B,  as  shown.  Again,  with  the  same  radius, 
set  off  A,  B,  A,  B  on  Fip.  37,  cutting  the  semi-circle  at 
B,  as  shown.  Now  draw  through  B,  on  the  right, 
parallel  with  S,  3,  cutting  at  J  and  F;  square  over  F, 
H  and  J,  K,  and  join  H,  C;  this  gives  bevel  X,  as  the 
cut  for  face  of  sides,  which  come  together  at  the  angle 
shown  at  3.  The  mitirs  on  the  edge  of  stuff  are 
parallel  with  the  dotted  line,  L,  3.  This  is  the  acute 
corner  of  the  hopper,  and  as  the  edges  are  worked  off 
to  the  bevel  _,  as  shown  in  Fig.  38,  the  miter  must  be 
correct. 

Having  mastered  the  details  of  the  acute  corner,  the 
square  corner  at  S  will  be  next  in  order  The  first  step 
is  to  join  K,  V,  which  gives  the  bevel  Y,  for  the  cut 
on  the  face  of  sides  on  the  ends,  which  form  the  square 
corners.  The  method  of  obtaining  these  lines  is  the 
same  as  that  explained  for  obtaining  them  for  the 
acute-angled  corner,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines, 
Fig.  35.  As  the  angles,  S,  T,  are  both  square,  being 
right  and  left,  the  same  operation  answers  both,  that 
\s,  the  bevel  Y  does  for  both  corners. 

Coming  to  the  obtuse  angle,  P,  2,  we  draw  a  line 
B,  E,  on  the  left,  parallel  with  A,  2,  cutting  at  E,  as 
shown  by  dotted  line.  Square  over  at  E,  cutting 
T,  A,  2  at  N;  join  N,  C,  which  will  give  the  bevel  VV, 
which  is  the  angle  of  cut  for  face  of  sides.  The  miters 
on  edges  are  found  by  drawing  a  line  parallel  with  r,  2. 

In  this  problem  like  Fig.  34,  every  line  necessary 
to  the  cutting  of  a  hopper  after  the  plan  as  shown  by 


X46 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


the  boundary  lines  2,  3,  T,  S.  is  complete  and  exhaust- 
ive, but  it  must  be  understood  that  in  actual  work  the 
spreading  out  of  the  sides,  as  here  exhibited,  will  not 
be  necessary,  as  the  angles  will  find  themselves  when 
the  work  is  put  together.  When  the  plan  of  the  base — 
which  is  the  small  end  of  the  hopper  in  this  case — is 
given,  and  the  slant  or  inclination  of  the  sides  knorvn, 
the  rest  may  be  easily  obtained.  In  order  to  become 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  problem,  I  would 
advise  the  workman  to  have  the  drawing  made  on 
cardboard,  so  as  to  cut  out  all  the  outer  lines,  in- 
cluding the  open  corners,  which  form  the  miters, 
leaving  the  whole  piece  loose.  Then  make  slight 
cuts  in  the  back  of  the  cardboard,  opposite  the  lines 
2,  3.  S,  T,  just  deep  enough  to  admit  of  the  cardboard 
being  bent  upwards  on  tlie  cut  lines  without  breaking. 
Then  run  the  knife  along  the  lines,  which  indicates  the 
edges  of  the  hopper  sides.  This  cut  must  be  made  on 
the  face  side  of  the  drawing,  so  as  to  admit  of  the 
edges  being  turned  downwards.  After  all  cuts  are 
made  raise  the  sides  until  the  corners  come  closely 
together,  and  let  the  edges  fall  level,  or  in  such  a 
position  that  the  miters  come  closely  together.  If  the 
lines  have  been  drawn  accurately  and  the  cuts  made 
on  the  lines  in  a  proper  manner,  the  work  will  adjust 
itself  nicely,  and  the  sides  will  have  the  exact  inclina- 
tion shown  at  Fig.  38,  and  a  perfect  model  of  the 
work  will  be  the  result. 

This  is  a  very  interesting  problem,  and  the  working 
out  of  it,  as  suggested,  cannot  but  afford  both  profit 
and  pleasure  to  the  young  workman. 

From  what  has  preceded,  it  must  be  evident  to  the 
workman  that  the  lines  giving  proper  angles  and 
bevels  for  the  corner  post  of  a  hopper  must  of  neces- 


JOINER'S  WORK 


147 


sity  give  the  proper  lines  for  the  corner  post  for  a  pyr- 
amidal building,  such  as  a  railway  tank  frame,  or  any 
similar  structure.  True,  the  position  of  the  post  is 
inverted,  as  in  the  hopper,  its  top  falls  outward,  while 
in  the  timber  structure  the  top  inclines  inward;  but  this 
makes  no  difference  in  the  theory,  all  the  operator  has 
to  bear  in  mind  is  that  the  hopper  in  this  case  is  reversed 
— inverted.  Once  the  proper  shape  of  the  corner  post 
has  been  obtained,  all  other  bevels  can  readily  be 
found,  as  the  side  cuts  for  joists  and  braces  can  be 
taken  from  them.  A  study  of  these  two  figures  in  this 
direction  will  ?ead  the  student  up  to  a  correct  knowl- 
edge of  tapered  frarAio^. 


CHAPTER    11 

COVERING    SOLIDS,    CIRCULAR     WORK,     DOVETAILING    AND 

STAIRS 


There  are  several  ways  to  cover  a  circular  tower  roof. 
Some  are  covered  by  bending  the   boarding  around 


them,  while  others  have  the  joints  of  the  covering  ver- 
tical, or  inclined.  In  either  case,  the  boarding  has  to 
be  cut  to  shape.     In  the  first  instance,  where  the  joints 

14S 


JOINER'S  WORK 


149 


are  horizontal,  the  covering  must  be  curved  on  both 

edges. 

At  Fig.  39  I  show  a  part  plan,  elevation,  and  develop- 
ment of  a  conical  tower  roof.  ABC  shows  half  the 
plan;  DO  and  EO  show  the  inclination  and  height  of 
the  tower,  while  EH  and  EI  show  the 
development  of  the  lower  course  of 
covering.  This  is  obtained  by  using 
O  as  a  center,  with  OE  as  radius,  and 
striking  the  curve  EI,  which  is  the 
lower  edge  of  the  board,  and  corre- 
sponds to  DE  in  the  elevation.  From 
the  same  center  O,  with  radius  OF, 
describe  the  curve  FH,  which  is  the 
joint  GF  on  the  elevation.  The  board, 
EFHI,  may  be  any  convenient  width, 
as  may  also  the  other  boards  used  for 
covering,  but  whatever  the  width  de- 
cided upon,  that  same  width  must  be 
continued  throughout  that  course. 
The  remaining  tiers  of  covering  must 
be  obtained  iii  the  same  way.  The 
joints  are  radial  lines  from  the  center 
O.  Any  convenient  length  of  stuff 
over  the  distance  of  three  ribs,  or  raft- 
ers, will  answer.  This  solution  is  ap- 
plicable to  many  kinds  of  work.  The 
rafters  in  this  case  are  simply  straight  scantlings;  the 
bevels  for  feet  and  points  may  be  obtained  from  the 
diagram.  The  shape  of  a  "gore,"  when  such  is 
required,  is  =hown  at  Fig.  40,  IJK  showing  the  base, 
and  L  the  top  or  apex.  The  method  of  getting  it  out 
will  be  easily  understood  by  examining  the  diagram. 
When  "gores"  are  used  for  covering  it  will  be  necessary 


Fig.  40.- 


^y^^uoBB^^ufl 


»So 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


to  have  cross-ribs  nailed  in  between  the  rafters,  and 
these  must  be  cut  to  the  sweep  of  the  circle,  where 
they  are  nailed  in,  so  that  a  rib  placed  in  half  way  up 
will  require  only  to  be  half  the  diameter  of  the  base, 
and  the  other  ribs  must  be  cut  accordingly. 

To  cover  a  domical  roof  with  horiz(Mital  boardinfj  we 
proceed  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  41,  where  ABC 


is  a  vertical  section  through  the  axis  of  a  circular 
dome,  and  it  is  required  to  cover  this  dome  hori- 
zontally. Bisect  the  base  in  the  point  D,  and  draw 
DBE  perpendicular  to  AC,  cutting  the  circumference 
in  B.  Now  divide  the  arc,  BC,  into  equal  parts,  so 
that  each  part  will  be  rather  less  than  the  width  of 
a  board,  and  join  the  points  of  division  by  straight 
lines,  which  will  form  an  inscribed  poiygon  of  so  many 
sides;  and  through  these  points  draw  lines  parallel  to 


mii 


mi 


ipm 


mm 


JOINER'S   WORK 


i5» 


the  base  AC,  meeting  the  opposite  sides  of  the  circum- 
ference. The  trapezoids  formed  by  the  sides  of  the 
polygon  and  the  horizontal  lines  may  then  be  regarded 
as  the  sections  of  so  many  frustrums  of  cones;  whence 
results  the  following  mode  of  procedure:  Produce, 
until  they  meet  the  line  DE,  the  lines  FG,  etc.,  form- 
ing the  sides  of  the  polygon.  Then  to  describe  a 
board  which  corresponds  to  the  surface  of  one  of  the 
zones,  as  FG,  of  which  the  trapezoid  is  a  section  from 


the  point  E,  where  the  line  FG  produced  meets  DE, 
with  the  radii  EF,  EG  describe  two  arcs  and  cut  off 
the  end  of  the  board  K  on  the  line  of  a  radius  EK. 
The  other  boards  are  described  in  the  same  manner. 

There  are  many  other  solids,  some  of  which  it  is 
possible  the  workman  may  be  called  upon  to  cover, 
but  as  space  will  not  admit  of  U5  discussing  them  all, 
we  will  illustrate  one  example,  which  includes  within 
itself  the  principles  by  which  almost  any  other  solid 


■ 


15* 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


may  be  dealt  with.     Let  us  suppose  a  tower,  having  a 
domical  roof,  rising  from  another  roof  having  an  incll 
nation  as  shown  at  BC,  Fig.  42,  and  we  wish  to  board 

it  with  the  joints  of 
the  boards   on    the 
same  inclination  as 
that   of    the    roof 
through   which   the 
tower   rises.      To 
accomplish  this,  let 
A,  B,  C,  D,  Fig.  42, 
be   the  seat  of  the 
generating   section; 
from   A    draw  AG 
perpendicular  to 
AB,     and    produce 
CD  to  n-..  it  it  in  E; 
on  A,  E  describe  the 
semi -circle,     and 
transfer   its    perim- 
eter  t  o   E,   G  by 
dividing  it  into 
equal    parts,    and 
setting     off     corre- 
sponding   divisions 
on  E,  G.     Through 
the  divisions  of  the 
semi -circle    draw 
lines  at  right  angles 
to    AE,    producing 
them    to    meet   the 
lines  A.  D  and  B.  C  in  i,  k,  /,  w,  etc.     Through  the 
divisions  on  E,  G.  draw  lines  perpendicular  to  them; 
then  through  the  intersections  of  the  ordinates  of  the 


. 


JOINERS   WORK 


153 


/ 


semi-circle,  with  the  line  AD  draw  the  lines  i,  a,  k,  2, 
/,  _y,  etc.,  parallel  to  AG,  and  where  these  intersect  the 
perpendiculars  from  EG,  in  points  a,  z,  j>,  x,  w,  v, 
u,  etc.,  trace  a  curved  line,  GD,  and  draw  parallel 
to  it  the  curved  line  HC;  then  will  DC,  HG  be  the 
development  of  the  covering  required. 

Almost  any  description  of  dome,  cone,  ogee  or 
other  solid  may  be  developed,  or  so  dealt  with  under 
the  principle  as 
shown  in  the 
foregoing,  that 
the  workman,  it 
is  hoped,  will  ex- 
perience  but 
little  difficulty  in 
laying  out  lines 
for  cutting  mate- 
rial to  cover  any 
form  of  curved 
roof  he  may  be 
confronted  with. 

Another  class 
of  c  o  v  e  r  i  n  g  is 
that    of    making 

soffits  for  splayed  doors  or  windows  having  circular  or 
segmental  heads,  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  43,  which  exhib- 
its a  door  with  a  circular  head  and  splayed  jambs. 
The  head  or  soffit  is  also  l  played  and  is  paneled  as 
shown.  In  order  to  obtain  the  curved  soffit,  to  show 
the  same  splay  or  angle,  from  the  vertical  lines  of  the 
door,  proceed  as  follows:  Lay  out  the  width  of  the 
doorway,  showing  the  splay  of  the  jambs,  as  at  C,  B  and 
L,  P;  extend  the  angle  lines,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines,  to  A,  which  gives  A,   B  as  the  radius  of  the 


/7  •' '  y^ 

i\ 

'\    ^. 

l-v 

;       \ 

^\ 

y 

X 

^  . 

;»• 

1      \FigA^, 

/ 

. 


S4 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


inside  curve,  and  A.  C  as  radius  of  the  outside  curve. 
Ihese  radii  correspond  to  the  radii  A.  li  and  A  C  in 
Fig.  43;  the  figure  showing  the  flat  plan  of  the  pan- 
eled soffit  complete.  To  find  the  development  tig 
43.  get  the  stretchout  of  the  quarter  circle  2  and  I' 
showa  in  the  elevation  at  the  top  of  tne  doorway,  and 


1^^    z"  r 


tnake  2  3  and  3B   Fig.  43.  equal  to  it.  and  the  rest  of 
the  work  is  very  simple. 

Fia  t"  ^^'J'  '"^  **"  '"'^  °^  '"*°  P^"^'^'  ^^  «hown  at 
rig.  44.  |t  IS  best  to  prepare  a  veneer,  having  its  edges 

f  some  flexible  wood  such  as  basswood,  elm  or  the 
like,  that  w,ll  easily  bend  over  a  form,  such  as  is 
shown  at  Fig.  44.  The  shape  of  this  form  is  a  portion 
of  a  cone,  the  circle  L  being  less  ip  diameter  than  the 


JOINER'S   WORK 


IS5 


circle  P.  The  whole  is  covered  with  staves,  which,  of 
course,  will  be  tapered  to  meet  the  situation.  The 
veneer,  x,  x,  etc.,  Fig.  43,  may  then  be  bent  over  the 
form  and  finished  to  suit  the  conditions.  If  the 
mouldings  used  in  the  panel  work  are  bolection  mould- 
ings, they  cannot  be  planted  in  place  until  after  the 
veneer  is  taken  off  the  form. 

This  method  of  dealing  with  splayed  work  is  appli- 
cable to  windows  as  well  as  doors,  to  circular  pews  in 


churches  and  many  other  places  where  splayed  work 
is  required. 

A  simple  method  of  finding  the  veneer  for  a  soffit  of 
the  form  shown  in  Fig.  43  is  shown  at  Fig.  45.  The 
splay  is  seen  at  C,  from  which  a  line  is  drawn  on  the 
angle  of  the  splay  to  B  through  which  the  vertical  line 
A  passes.     B  forms  the  center  from  which  the  veneer 


IS6 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


18  descnoec.  A  is  the  center  of  the  circular  head,  for 
both  inside  and  outside  curves,  as  shown  at  D.  The 
radial  lines  ccntcrinfj  at  B  show  how  to  kerf  the  stuff 
when  necessary  for  bc-nding.  The  line  E  is  at  right 
angles  with  the  line  CB,  and  the  veneer  CE  is  the 
proper  length  to  run  half  way  around  the  soffit.  The 
joints  are  radial  lines  just  as  shown. 

A  method  for  ob- 
taining the  correct 
shape  of  a  veneer 
for  a  gothic  splayed 
window  or  door- 
head,  is  shown  at 
Fig.  46;  E  shows 
the  sill,  and  line 
BA  the  angle  of 
splay.  BC  shows 
the  outside  of  the 
splay;  erect  the  in- 
side line  F  to  A, 
and  this  point  will 
form  the  center 
from  which  to  de- 
p.  cribe  the  curve  or 

^^"  *'•  veneer  G.      This 

veneer  will  be  the  proper  shape  to  bend  in  the  soffit 
on  either  side  of  the  window  head. 

The  art  of  dovetailing  is  almost  obsolete  among 
carpenters,  as  most  of  this  kind  of  work  is  now  done 
by  cabinet-makers,  or  by  a  few  special  v/orkmen  in 
the  factories.  It  will  be  well,  however,  to  preserve  the 
art,  and  every  young  workman  should  not  rest  until  he 
can  do  a  good  job  of  work  in  dovetailing;  he  will  not 
find  it  a  difficult  operation. 


^:i  fe^i!*.. 


JOINER'S   WORK 


157 


There  are  three  kinds  of  dovetailing,  i.e.,  the  com- 
mon lovetail,  Fig.  47;  the  lapped  dovetail.  Fig.  48, 
and  the  secret,  or  mitered  dovetail,  Fig.  49.  These 
may  be  subdivided  into  other  kinds  of  dovetailing, 
but  there  will  be  but  little  difference. 

The  common  dovetail  is  the  strongest,  but  shows  the 
ends  of    the  dovetails   on  both  faces  of  the  angles. 


Kg.  48. 


and  is,  therefore,  only  used  in  such  places  as  that 
of  a  drawer,  where  the  external  angle  is  not 
seen. 

The  lapped  dovetail,  where  the  ends  of  the  dovetails 
show  on  one  side  of  the  angle  only,  is  used  in  such 
places  as  the  front  of  a  drawer,  the  side  being  only 
Fcen  when  opened. 

In  the  miter  or  secret  dovetail,  the  dovetails  are  not 
seen  at  all.     It  is  the  weakest  of  the  three  kinds. 


»58 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


At  Figs.  50  and  51  I  sh(.\v  two  methods  of  dovetail- 
ing hoppers,  trays  and  other  splayed  work.  The 
reference  letters  A  and  B  show  that  when  the  work  is 
together  A  will  stand  directly  over  B.     Care  must  be 


taken  when  preparin^^  the  ends  ■.  stuff  for  dovetaihng 
for  hoppers,  trays,  etc.,  that  the  right  bevels  and 
angles  are  obtained,  according  to  the  rules  explained 


"(M 


for  finding  the  cuts  and  bevels  l-n  hoppers  and  work 
of  a  similar  kind,  in  the  examples  gi\  n  previously. 
All  stuff  for  hopper  work   inteniling  to  be  dovetailec 


JOINER'S  WORK 


»59 


must  be  prepared  with  butt  joints  before  the  dovetails 
arc  laid  out  Joints  of  thin  kind  may  b.  mad.-  com- 
mon, lapped  or  mitered.  In  making  the  latter  much 
skill  and  labor  will  be  rc-cimrod.  „,;^„^^ 

Stair  building  and  handrail.ng  combined  ts  a  science 
in  itself,  and  ofte  that  taxes  the  best  sk.  I  in  the  mar- 
ket and  it  will  be  impossible  for  mc  to  do  more  than 
touch  the  subject,  and  that  in  such  ^  !"-"'>'^;  f^'*; 
enable  the  workman  to  lay  out  an  ordinary  straight 
flieM  of  stairs.  For  further  instructions  in  stair 
building  1  would  refer  my  readers  to  some  one  or 
wo  of  the  many  works  on  the  sublet  that  can  be 
obtained  from  any  dealer  in  mechanical  or  scientific 

^"^Thcf^  St  thing  the  stair  build.r  has  lo  ascertain  is  the 
dimens  on  of  the  spa.     the  stairs  are  to  occ^Py.^  ^^^" 
h    m.  .t  get  the  hei.h      >r  th-  riser,    and  the  width  of 
the  t     uls.  an.l,  as  architect^   generally  draw  the  plan 
of  the  stairs,  showing  the     pa^e  th-y  are  to  occupy 
and  th     number  of  treaci     the  stair  builder  has  on  y  to 
measur^     ^he  height  from  ^.or  to  t.. or  and  divide  by 
thenu,     nr  of  risers     .d  th.  -hstance  from  first  to  la 
riser,    and   divid.     by   the   :    .mber  of    treads.       (This 
refe  s  onlv  to  sf  i,ht   sta  rs.  ,     ^  et  us  t^ake  an  exam- 
ple-    Say  that  ue  have  t.n  feet  of  height  and  fitteen 
Lt  ten   inches  of  mn.  and  we  hav.    ninct.    .  treads; 
thus  fifteen  feet  ten  inches  divided  'vn-.tcen  gives 
us  ten  inches  for  the  width  of  the  tr.ad.  and  we  h.ae 
ten    feet  rise    div    led    by  twenty  (observe   here  that 
there  is  always  one  mon   riser  than  tread).  wh|ch  e^ves 
„s  six  inches  for  tl     height  of  the  riser     The  .utch- 
board  must    now  b.  made,   and  as  all  thc^  work  h..s 
to  be   set  out   from  it,    eaie  must 
exactly  right.     Take  a  piece  of 


t6o 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


in  Fig.  52,  about  half  an  inch  thick,  dress  it  and  square 
the  side  and  end,  A,  B,  C;  set  off  the  height  of  the 
rise  from  A  to  B,  and  the  width  of  the  tread  from  B 
toC;  now  cut  the  line  AC,  and  the  pitch-board  is  com- 
plete, as  shown  in  Fig.  53.  This  may  be  done  by  the 
steel  square  as  shown  at  Fig.  54.  To  get  the  width  of 
string-boards  draw  the  line  AB,  Fig.  53;  add  to  the  length 
of  this  line  about  half  an  inch  more  at  A,  the  margin 
to  be  allowed,  and  the  total  will  be  the  width  of 
string-boards.     Thus,  say  that  we  allow  three  inches 


for  margin,  one-half  inch  to  be  left  on  the  under  side 
of  string-board,  will  make  the  width  of  string-boards 
in  this  case  about  nine  inches.  Now  get  a  plank,  say 
one  and  a  half  inches,  of  any  thickness  that  may  be 
agreed  upon,  the  length  may  be  obtained  by  multiply- 
ing the  longest  side  of  the  pitch-boards,  AC,  Fig.  52, 
by  the  number  of  risers;  but  as  this  is  the  only  class  of 
stairs  that  the  length  of  string-boards  can  be  obtained 
in  this  way  I  would  recommen  1  the  beginner  to  prac- 
tice the  sure  plan  of  taking  the  pitch-board  and  apply- 
ing it  as  at  I,  2,  3,  19,  Fig.  55.     Drawing  all  the  steps 


JOINER' S  WORK 


i6i 


this  way  will  prevent  a  mistake  that  sometimes  occurs, 
viz.  the  string-boards  being  cut  too  short.  Cut  the 
foot  at  the  line  AB,  and  the  top,  as  at  CD.  This  will 
give  about  one  and  a  half  inches  more  than  the 
extreme  length.  Now  cut  out  the  treads  and  risers; 
the  width  of  stair  is,  say,  three  feet,  and  we  have  one 
and  a  half  inches  on  each  side  for  string-boards. 
Allow  three-eights  of  an  inch  for  housing  on  each 
side.  This  will  make  the  length  of  tread  and  risers 
two  and  one-fourth  inches  less  than  the  full  width  of 
stairs;  and  as  the  treads  must  project  their  own  thick- 
ness over  rise,  which  is,  s  y,  one  and  a  half  inches,  the 
full  size  of  tread  will  be  two  feet  by  eleven  and  one- 
half  inches,  and  of  the  risers  two  feet  nine  and  three- 
fourths  inches  by  six  inches;  and  observe  that  the  first 
riser  will  be  the  thickness  of  the  tread  less  than  the 
others;  it  will  be  only  four  and  one-half  inches  wide. 
The  reason  of  this  riser  being  less  than  the  others  is 
because  it  has  a  tread  thickness  extra. 

I  will  now  leave  the  beginner  to  prepare  all  his  work. 
Dress  the  risers  on  one  face  and  one  edge;  dress  the 
treads  on  one  face  and  both  edges,  making  them  all 
of  equal  width;  gauge  the  ends  and  the  face  edge  to 
the  required  thickness,  and  round  off  the  nosings; 
dress  the  string-boards  to  one  face  and  edge  to  match 
each  other. 

A  plan  of  a  stair  having  13  risers  and  three  winders 
below  is  shown  at  Fig.  56.  .  This  shows  how  the  whole 
stair  may  be  laid  out.      It  is  inclosed  between  two 

walls. 

The  beginner  in  stair-work  had  better  resort  to  the 
old  method  of  using  a  story-rod  for  getting  the  num- 
ber of  risers.  Take  a  rod  and  mark  on  it  Ihi:  exact 
height  from  top  of  lower  floor  to  top  of  next  floor,  then 


■(■■■■HIH 


i6a 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


divide  up  and  mark  off  the  number  of  risers  required. 
There  is   always  one  more  riser  than  tread  in  every 
flight  of  stairs.     The  first  riser  must  be  cut  the  thick- 
ness of  the  tread  less  than  the  others. 
When  there  are  winders,  special  treatment  will  be 


rtoow 


PLAN 


required,  as  shown  in  Fig.  56,  for  the  treads,  but  the 
riser  must  always  be  the  same  width  for  each  separate 
flight. 

When  the  stair  is  straight  and  without  winders,  a 
rod  may  be  used  for  laying  off  the  steps.  The  width 
of  the  steps,  or  treads,  will  be  governed  somewhat  by 
the  space  allotted  for  the  run  of  the  stairs. 

There  is  a  certain  proportion  existing  between  the 
tread  and  riser  of  a  stair,  that  should  be  kept  to  as  close 
as  possible  when   laying  out  the  work       Architects 


. 


JOINER'S  WORK 


163 


say  that  the  exact  measurement  for  a  tread  and  riser 
should  be  sixteen  inches,  or  thereabouts.  That  is,  if  a 
riser  is  made  six  inches,  the  tread  should  be  ten  inches 
wide,  and  so  on.  I  give  a  table  herewith,  showing  the 
rule  generally  made  use  of  by  stair  builders  for  deter- 
mining the  widths  of  risers  and  treads: 


It 


TVrarfj 

Risers 

Tfeads 

Risers 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

1 

9 

12 

S'A 

8^ 

13 

5 

7 

8 

14 

4>^ 

8 

7% 

15 

4 

9 

7 

16 

3/2 

10 

6V2 

17 

3 

II 

6 

18 

2)4 

is  seldom, 

however 

that  the  proportion 

of  the 


LANLMMO 


lA 

a 
ti 

ja 
u 

3. 
3. 


A. 
1 


riser  and  step  is  exactly  a  matter  of  clioice — the  room 


' 


i«4 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


allotted  to  the  stairs  usually  determines  this  propor- 
tion; but  the  above  will  be  found  a  useful  standard,  to 
which  it  is  desirable  to  approximate. 

In  better  class  buildings  the  number  of  steps  is  con- 
sidered in  the  plan,  which  it  is  the  business  of  the 
architect  to  arrange,  and  in  such  cases  the  height 
of  the  story-rod  is  simply  divided  to  the  number 
required. 

An  elevation  of  a  stair  with  winders  is  shown  at 
Fig.  57,  where  the  story-rod  is  in  evidence  with  the 
number  of  risers  figured  oiL 


Fig.  58  shows  a  portion  of  an  open  string  stair,  with 
a  part  of  the  rail  laic!  on  it  at  AB,  CD,  anu  the  newel 
cap  with  the  projection  at  A.  This  shows  how  the 
cap  should  stand  over  the  lower  step. 

Fig.  59  shows  the  manner  of  constructing  the  step; 
S  represents  the  string,  R  the  risers,  T  the  tread,  U 
the  nosing  and  cove  mmilciing,  and  B  is  a  block  glued 
or  otherwise  fastened  to  both  riser  and  tread  to  render 


JOINERS  WORK 


i6s 


them  strong  and  firm.  It  will  be  seen  the  riser  is  let 
into  the  tread,  and  has  a  shoulder  on  the  inside.  The 
bottom  of  the  riser  is  nailed  to  the  back  of  the  next 
lower  tread,  which  binds  the  whole  lower  part  to- 
gether. The 
nosing  of  the 
stair  is  gen- 
e  r  a  1  ly  r  e  - 
turned  at  the 
open  end  of 
the  tread, 
and  this  cov- 
ers the  end 
wood  of  the 
tread  and  the 
joints  of  the 
balusters,  as 
shown  at 
Fig  60. 

When  a  stair  is  bracketed,  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  60, 
the  point  of  the  riser  on   its  string  end  should  be  left 

standing  past  the  string 
the  thickness  of  the 
bracket,  and  the  end  of 
the  bracket  miters 
against  it,  thus  avoid- 
ing the  necessity  of 
showing  end  wood  or 
joint  The  cove  should 
finish  inside  the  length 
of  the  bracket,  and  the 
nosing  should  fin- 
ish just  outside  the 
When  brackets   are  employed 


length  of  the  bracket. 


1 66 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


they  should  continue  along  the  cylinder  and  all 
around  the  well -hole  trimmers,  though  they  may 
be  varied  to  suit  conditions  when  continuously  run- 
ning oa  a  straight  horizontal  facia. 


CHAPTER   III 


JOINER  S   WORK— USEFUL    MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES 


I  am  well  aware  that  workmen  are  always  on  the 
lookout  for  details  of  work,  and  welcome  everything 
in  this  line  that  is  new.  While  styles  and  shapes 
change  from  year  to  year,  like  fashion  in  women's 
dress,  the  principles  of  construction  never  change, 
and  styles  of  finish  in  woodwork  that  may  be  in  vogue 
to-day,  may  be  old-fashioned  and  discarded  next  year, 
therefore  it  may  not  be  wise  to  load  these  pages  with 
many  examples  of  finish  as  made  use  of  to-day.  A 
few  examples,  however,  may  not  be  out  of  place,  so  I 
close  this  section  by  offering  a  few  pages  of  such 
details  as  I  feel  assured  will  be  found  useful  for  a  long 
time  to  come. 

Fig.  r  is  a  full  page  il'  istration  of  three  exam- 
ples of  stairs  and  newels  in  modern  styles.  The 
upper  one  is  a  colonial  stairway  with  a  square  newel, 
as  shown  at  A.  A  baluster  is  also  shown,  so  that  the 
whole  may  be  copied  if  retjuired.  The  second  exam- 
ple shows  two  newels  and  balusters,  and  paneled  string 
and  spandril  AB,  also  section  of  pant  led  work  on  end 
of  short  flight.  The  third  shows  a  i'lain  open  stair, 
with  baluster  and  newel,  the  latter  -starting  from 
first  step. 

At  Fig.  2,  which  is  ,i!sn  ,t  full  page,  seven  of  the 
latest  designs  for  doors  are  shown.      Those  marked 

167 


i6S 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


■■ 


JOINER'S   WORK 


169 


I70 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


ABCD  are  more  particularly  employed  for  inside 
work,  while  F  and  G  may  be  used  on  outside  work; 
the  five-paneled  door  being  the  more  popular. 

There  are  ten  different  illustrations,  shown  at  Fig.  3, 
of  various  details.  The  five  upper  ones  show  the  gen- 
eral method  of  constructing  and  finishing  a  window 
frame  for  weighted  sash.  The  section  A  shows  a  part 
of  a  wall  intendni  for  brick  veneering,  the  upper  story 
being  shingled  or  ciapboarded. 

The  position  of  windows  and  method  of  finishing 
bottom  of  frame,  both  inside  and  out,  are  shown  in 
this  section,  also  manner  of  cutting  joists  tor  sill. 
The  same  method — on  a  larger  seal  —js  shown  at  C, 
only  the  latter  is  intended  for  a  bal  )on  frame,  which 
is  to  be  boarded  and  sided  on  the  outside. 

At  B  another  method  for  cutting  joists  for  sill  is 
shown,  where  the  frame  is  a  balloon  one.  This  frame 
is  supposed  to  be  boarded  inside  and  out,  and  grounds 
arc  planted  on  for  finish,  as  shown  at  the  base.  There 
is  also  shown  a  carpet  strip,  or  quarter-round.  The 
outside  is  finished  with  siding. 

The  two  smaller  sections  show  foundation  walls, 
heights  of  stories,  position  of  windows,  rnrnices 
and  gutters,  and  methods  of  connecting  sills  to 
joists. 

A  number  of  examples  are  shown  in  Fig.  4  that  will 
prove  useful.  One  is  an  oval  window  with  keys. 
This  is  often  employed  to  light  vestibules,  back  stairs 
or  narrow  hallways.  Another  one,  without  keys,  is 
shown  on  the  lower  part  of  the  page.  There  are  three 
examples  of  eyebrow  dormers  shown.  These  are 
different  in  style,  and  wiii,  of  course,  require  different 
construction. 

The  dormer  window,  shown  at  the  foot  of  the  page, 


JOINER'S   WORK 


i7« 


M^nl 


] 


n* 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


' 


jOfNER'S   WORK 


173 


is  designed  for  a  house  built  in  colonial  stylo,  bi  t  may 
he  adapted  to  oth<  r  styles 

The  four  first  t-Mmplfs  in  Ki^j.  5  show  tht  sections 
of  vari  >us  parts  of  a  bay  window  for  a  ba'loon  frame. 
Th  mann*"-  of  constnutinj,'  the  angle  is  sliown,  als 
th.  .ill  and  head  '.f  window,  the  various  parts  md 
manner  of  working  them  being  given.  A  pa-^t  01  the 
se.tion  of  the  top  of  thv  ,v  hIow  is  shown  .u  E,  'he 
inside  finish  being  pi  j.  s-iy  1'  it  off.  At  I'  is  sh  i 
an  angle  -f  great<'r  length,  which  is  sometime-  tiu.' 
case  in  b.iv  windo.  ^  Thi  manner  i  construction  s 
(juite  simple.  The  l.,w<r  portior  of  the  page  ^^h  ws 
some  fine  <  xan>!)l<  s  of  turned  and  carved  work,  'i  -sc 
will  often  be  i  >und  us<f  d  in  giving  ideas  fiM  turned 
work  for  a  varii-ty  of  purposes. 

Six  examples    of   shin<:lin<;   are    shown    in    Fig.   6. 
The  first  sketch,  A,   is   intended  t^r  a  hip,   and  is  a 
fairly  good  exanu>!e,  an  !  if  well  done  will    insure  a 
water-tight    roof    at   liiat    point.      In    laying  out  the 
shingles  for  this  plan  the  courses  are  man.ige('  as  fol- 
lows;     No.    I  i<   laid   all   the  way  out   to    thi     line    of 
the  hip,  .        ji.;    -of  the  shingle  being  plan. d   off,  so 
that  coaist    >Io.  2,  on  the  adjacent  side  will   line  per- 
fectly tight  down  upon  it.     Next  No.  3  is  laitl  and  is 
dressed  down  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first,  after 
which  No.  4  is  brought  along  the  same  as  No.  2.     The 
work  proceeds  in  this  manner,  first  right  and  then  left. 
In  the  second  sketch,  B,  the  shingles  are  laid  on  the 
hip  in  away  to  bring  the  grain  of  the  shingles  more 
nearly  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  hip.     This  method 
overcomes    the    projection    of    cross-grained    points. 
Another  method  of  shingling  hips  is  shown  at  C  and 
D.     In  putting  on  shingles  by  this  method  a  line  is 
snapped  four  inches  from  angle  of  hip  on  both  sides 


«74 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


JOINER'S  WORK 


t»S 


of  the  ridge,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  Imes  in  C,  th^n 
bring  the  corner  of  the  shin^^les  of  each  course  to  the 
line  as  shown.  When  all  through  with  the  plain  sh.n- 
gling.  make  a  pattern  to  suit,  and  only  cut  the  top  to 
fhape.  as  the  bottoms  or  butts  will  break  joints  every 
time,  and  the  hip  line  will  lay  square  with  the  hip 
nne,  as  shown  at  D;  thus  making  a  first-c';ss  water- 
tight job,  and  one  on  which  the  shingles  w.l  not  curl 
up,  and  it  will  have  a  good  appearance  as  well. 

At  E  a  method  is   shown  for    shingling  a  valley, 
where  no  tin  or  metal  is  employed.     The  manner  o 
doing  this  work  is  as  follows:     First  take  a  strip  4 
inches  wide  and  chamfer  it  on  the  edges  on  the  out- 
side, so  that  it  will  lay  down  smooth  to  the  sheeting, 
and  nail  it  into  the  valley.     Take  a  shingle  about  4 
inches  wide  to  start  with  and  lay  lengthwise  of  the 
valley,   fitting  the    shingle  on    each    side.      The  first 
course,  which   is  always  double,  would  then  start  with 
the  narrow  shingle,  marked  B,  and  earned  up  the  val- 
ley,  as  shown  in  the  sketch.     Half  way  between  each 
course  lay   a   shingle.  A,   a",  out  4  or  5   '"ches  w.de 
as    the     case     requires,    cha.ntering    underneath     on 
each  side,   so  that    the    next   cour.e    will   he  smooth 

""Ti  tin  or  zinc  can  bo  obtained,  it  is  better  it  should 
be   laid  in  the  valley,  whether  this  method  be  adopted 

"'The  skelch  sh.v.vn  at  F  is  intended  to  illustrate  the 
manner  in  which  a  valley  should  be  laid  with  tin.  ..nc 
or  galvanized  iron.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  width 
of  the  metal,  which  should  never  be  less  than  four- 
teen inches  to  insure  a  tight  roof.  The  shingles 
should  lap  over  as  shown,  and  not  less  than  four 
iaches  of  the  valley.  H,  should  be  clear  of  shingles 


X76 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


im 


JOINER'S  WORK 


tjl 


in  order  to  insure  plenty  of  space  for  the  water  to 
flow  during  a  heavy  rain  storm.  A  great  deal 
of  care  should  be  taken  in  shingling  and  finishing  a 
valley,  as  it  is  always  a  weak  spot  in  the  roof. 


_— 


PART    IV 

USEFUL   TABLES   AND    MEMORANDA 
FOR    BUILDERS 

Table  showing  quantity  of  material  in  every  four 
lineal  feet  of  exterior  wail  in  a  balloon  frame  build- 
ing, height  of  wall  being  given: 


i 

ii 

Site  of  stud*, 
Bracex,  etc. 

II 

42 

u 

30 

Is 
40 

"5 

8 

ox  (1 

2x4  Studs. 

74 

lO 

6x  8 

4x4  braces 

<;2 

44 

50 

80 

la 

6x10 

4x4  plates. 

62 

53 

60 

q6 

14 

6x10 

1x6  ribbons. 

(HI 

62 

70 

iia 

16 

8x10 

S2 

71 

80 

128 

18 

8x10 

studs. 

87 

80 

go 

"44 

ao 

8x12 

16  inches  from 

.,8 

83 

HXJ 

Ibo 

22 

qXI2 

centers. 

109 

97 

1  10 

176 

24 

lux  12 

IIQ 
122 

10(1 

8u~ 

120 

<)0 

iq2 

IS 

loxto 

2x6  studs. 

144 

20 

tOXIJ 

(jx6  braces. 

137 

88 

KJO 

160 

22 

10x12 

4x6  pla'es. 

145 

07 

1 10 

176 

24 

12X12 

1x6  ribbons. 

162 

106 

I20 

U)3 

26 

10x14 

ifK, 

i'4 

130 

208 

28 

10x14 

studs  lb  inch  centers. 

176 

123 

140 

224 

y 

12X14 

1(^8 

132 

150 

240 

i7y 


i8o 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


Table  showing  amount  of  lumber  in  rafters,  collar- 
piece  and  boarding,  and  number  of  shingles  to  four 
lineal  feet  of  roof,  measured  from  eave  to  eave  over 
ridge.     Rafters  i6-inch  centers: 


Quantity  of 

Width 

site  of 
Collar- 

l,nmb«T 

Quantity 

of 

Siie  of 

ill  Rii    -r 

of 

No.  of 

HouK, 

Rafters. 

an 

BoarUing, 

Shingle*. 

Feet. 

Collar- 
piece. 

Feet. 

14 

2x4 

^X4 

39 

61 

560 

16 

3x4 

2x4 

45 

70 

640 

18 

2x4 

2x4 

50 

79 

720 

30 

2x4 

2x4 

56 

88 

800 

32 

2x4 

2x4 

62 

97 

880 

*4 

3X4 

2x4 

67 

106 

960 

ao 

2X6 

2X6 

84 

88 

800 

33 

3X6 

2x6 

92 

97 

38o 

34 

2X6 

2x6 

101 

106 

960 

36 

2x6 

2x6 

109 

"5 

1040 

38 

2X6 

2x6 

117 

124 

1120 

30 

2x6 

2X6 

126 

133 

1200 

A  proper  allowance  for  waste   is    included    in  the 
above.     Roof,  one-fourth  pitch. 


Table  showing  the  requisite  sizes  of  girders  and 
joists  for  warehouses,  the  span  and  distances  apart 
being  given: 


1> 

Span  ok 

GlSDERS. 

8  Feet 

8  Feet. 

10  Feet. 

"inches. 
I2XIb 
12x18 
14x18 

12  Feet. 

Feet. 
10 
12 
14 

Inches. 
8X12 
9x12 

10x12 

Inches. 
12x13 
12x14 
12x15 

lucheit 
14x18 

16x18 

Inches 
2jxi(» 
3    XIO 
3   XI2 

Girders  to  have  a 
beurinvr    at    each 
end  atid  joists  6  in. 

USEFUL   TABLES 


i8i 


Table  as  before,  adapted  for  churches,  public  halls, 


etc. 


h. 

8PAK  OF 

QlRDEBI. 

it 

Joiots. 

Remarks. 

6  Fret. 

8  Feet. 

10  Feel. 

I'J  Fret. 

Feet 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Incheii. 

Inche!! 

IncheH 

13 

6x10 

8x12 

12x14 

12x16 

2    X    b 

13 

9x11 

9x12 

11x15 

12X17 

2     X     f) 

Boaringsof 

14 

(1x12 

IOXI2 

12x15 

11x18 

2    X   y 

KirtU'is  a  nd 

15 

7x12 

IIXt2 

llXIt) 

I2X16 

2    X  lu 

joists  as 

16 

Sxi2 

12X12 

12x16 

13x18 

2     XIO 

above. 

17 

8X12 

(>.\I4 

12x17 

14x18 

2     XI3 

iS 

i)XI3 

10x14 

UXI8 

2     XI2 

20 

()XI2 
I UX 1 2 

11x14 
12x14 

12x18 
13X1S 

2ixt2 
24x12 
21X12 

Both  tables 

.....     ..... 

are   calcu- 

31 

10x12 

I IXI5 

14x18 

lateil  for  yel- 

23 

11X12 

12x15 

I  IX  Id 

3    XI2 
3x12 

3   x«3 
3    X13 
3    XI4 

low  pine. 

33 
34 
35 

36 

11X12 

."'■  r:: ' :. . 

10x13 
10x13 
10x14 

I2XI() 

12x17 
I  2X  1  S 

a? 

10x14 

I2XlS 

?>   X14 

Table  showing  quantity  of  lumber  in  every  four 
lineal  feet  of  partition,  studs  being  placed  16  centers, 
waste  included: 


Height  of  Partition. 

y 

iiaut 

ty  of  Stud*  ■.'x4 

IVct 

Feet. 

8 

20 

9 

23 

10 

26 

II 

29 

12 

32 

'3 

35 

>4 

38 

«5 

4> 

16 

4J 

If  Jxa 

Feet. 


30 
34 
38 
43 

46 

51 

55 
50 
64 


ita 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


Lumber  Me«aurement  Table 


4 

Ji 

;s 

d 

Ji 

d 

1 

« 

{^ 

tt 

% 

^ 

1 

s 

s 

s 

a 

! 

9X4 

3X6 

3X8 

2XIU 

3x6 

3x8 

12 

8 

12 

12 

13 

I6 

12 

20 

12 

18 

12 

24 

>4 

9 

lA 

«4 

14 

I'; 

14 

23 

14 

21 

14 

28 

16 

II 

16 

l6 

16 

21 

1 6 

27 

16 

24 

16 

32 

l8 

13 

I8 

I8 

l8 

24 

I8 

30 

18 

27 

IS 

36 

30 

13 

30 

20 

2o 

27 

20 

33 

30 

30 

20 

40 

33 

«5 

32 

22 

23 

20 

22  j  37 

32 

33 

22 

44 

24 

16 

24 

24 

24 

32 

24   4" 

24 

36 

24 

48 

26 

«7 

26 

26 

26 

35 

'.(> 

43 

26 

30 

36 

52 

4XS 


6X6 


12 

14 

16 

18 


32 

37 
43 
48 


24  '2(>0 

26  '217 


20   53 
22  I  59 

24   'M 
26  ;  6g 


IOXI3 


12 

14 

16 
IS 
?<> 


I2<) 
140 
160 
180 
2<iO 
'J.  220 
24  240 
26   2()<> 


12 

«4 
16 
18 
20 
23 

24 
26 


36 
42 

48 

54 
60 
66 

72 
78 


13X13 


12 

14 
16 
IS 
2U 

24 
26 


•44 

16a 
I<)3 
216 
240 

164 
288 
313 


Streng^th  of  Materials 

Kesistunce  to  cxtensioH  and  compression,  in  {lounds  per  square 
inch  section  of  some  materials.  . 


Nanir  of  thr 
Matrnal. 


Krtislaacr     I      KritUtancc 
to  Katc-UHiun,  |toCom|jirMti>>n 


White  pine... 
Wh'te  oak.... 

R(x-k  elm 

Wrought  iron 
Cast  iron 


10,000 
1 5, 000 
16.000 
6o,uix> 

20,(KKJ 


6,000 

7.500 

8.011 

50,000 

1 00,  f  mo 


Tensile  Sire  th  Coiiip.Strengtb 
lu  I'l  actice      I     iu  I'ractice. 


2.000 

3,ixx) 
3,200 

I2,IKX> 

4,o<iO 


1 ,  200 

1,500 

l,6<J2 

1  1,000 
20,000 


In    practice,    from    onf-fifth    to    one-sixth    of    the 
strength  is  all  tiiat  should  be  depended  upon 


I32J 


USEFUL  TABLES 


183 


Tabit  of  Superficial  or  Flat  Mtatnrr 

By  which  the  contents  in  Superficial  Feet,  of  Boards,  Plank,  Pav- 
ing, etc.,  of  any  Ltngth  and  Hreadtk,  can  be  obtained,  by 
multiplyinff  the  decimal  expressed  in  the  table  by  the  length 
of  the  board,  etc 


Of»»rt»n 

Artt  of  ■  Hn- 

Sfttdth 

ArMsf  •  lin- 

Sr*(dth 

Art!  of  •  lin* 

BrHdth  Area  of  •  Mn- 

Inches  >' 

•>l  foot. 

3^ 

Ml  loot. 

.nchtt 

~6r 

••1  foot. 

inchM         Ml  foot. 

' 

.<'>i'i>^ 

,a7o8 

.S2(>8 

9 
9 

7708 

.0417 

3i 

.2<)'6 

fi 

54  If' 

7917 

ooj  <; 

n 

lias 

«>» 

.562$ 

9 

8ias 

I 

.OR.14 

•4 

J3>t 

7 

■5R33 

10 

8334 

1} 

.  104s 

*\ 

3Mi 

7: 
7 

.6042 

in 

854  a 

4 

ISf 

*\ 

■3-5 

.(.as 

10 

875 

«j 

■  »45') 

41 

39  S' 

vj 

.6458 

10 

8950 

a 

.l6h7 

5 

•4">7 

8 

.6667 

II 

9167 

«* 

.«875 

'.I 

.4375 

8 

«)875 

II 

9375 

5! 

.2084 

4:83 

.7084 

II 

9583 

.ivyi 

M 

..-.702 

8 

.7292 

II 

9792 

3 

■  If, 

(> 

5 

9 

7^ 

13               1 

0000 

Round  and  Hqual-Sided  Timber  Measure 
Tab'e  for  asccrtainir;?  the  msmher  of  Cubical  Feet,  or  solid  con- 
tents, in  a  Stiik  of  Round  or  Equal-Sided  Timber,  Tree.  etc. 


Kigi.i 

Af.lin 

Hgir 

-  A'ta  in 

Xftrt 

Ar««  in 

K  g"t 

A'**  m 

i<g„1 

ArMin 

in  ir. 

^f.t 

in  111, 

To'f 

j    l.«t 

in  m, 

f«.l 

in  in. 

tot. 

* 

ii  m. 

(-.1. 

6 

2^ 

•  8"3 

«5i 

i.iAtfi 

aoi 

2  .'i)« 

25 

4  34 

6 

-272 

II 

.84 

»5J 

I. 732 

20i 

2.917 

25J 

4  438 

.294 

II 

.878 

I'. 

1-777 

aoj 

2.99 

25| 

4.<l6 

f>^ 

•317 

II 

.918 

"'i 

!  i*33 

21 

3.(rfl2 

255 

4605 

7 

■  34 

II' 

•959 

ir.j 

1.S9 

21 

31 

3  •3f> 

2fi 

4.694 

7 

.3f»4 

t2 

I. 

if)j 

l.i>»8 

3  2*^ 

2<> 

4^785 

^ 

•39 

13} 

I  043 

1 7 

2.(X)() 

ai 

32S5 

26 

4876 

7 

•  417 

12i 

I  o3e 

>■', 

2../.<i 

32 

3.362 

26 

49<'9 

8 

4  44 

12} 

>.I2', 

>7l 

2.  I2(> 

32 

3.438 

27 

5  062 

8 

•472 

«3 

1. 174 

17? 

2.187 

32 
32 

3  5 '6 

27i 
27J 

5.158 

(< 

.501 

'3i 

13! 

1    2lt 

18 

2.25 

3^598 

S-asa 

8 

•  511 

\.2i-^ 

iS! 

2.U3 

23 

3  t>73 

27J 

5.348 

9 

.5'jj 

'  3'3 

2  376 

■A 
23} 

3-754 

28 

5444 

9j 

■394 

14 

•   -?6I 

laj 

-'  442 

3-'^35 

28 

5  543 

9i 

.626 

141 

I      I 

>9 

2.  5<rf) 

a3j 

3<*'7 

28 

5.64 

9j 

.659 

'4 

1  4f« 

I'^l 

2  5/4 

34 

4 

5-74 

10 

.694 

'41 

i.^;!! 

'■4 

2  (4 

a4l 

4  ^'--■4 

29 

!  84 

lOj 

■73 

li 

t  562 

lOj 

J  7    ') 

54| 

4  r  1 

M 

5  94« 

•» 

.766 

'M 

1.015 

au 

±i: "!_ 

_J^L. 

4  254 

^hL 

6.Q44 

1£'.^ 


!i 


•84 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 
Shinfling^ 


To  finJ  the  number  of  shingl«s  r.-quired  to  cover  100 
fqiiare  feet  deduct  3  inches  from  the  length,  divide 
)c  remainder  by  3.  the  result  will  be  the  exposed 
length  of  a  shingle;  multiplying  this  with  the  average 
width  of  a  shingle,  the  product  will  be  the  exposed 
area.  Dividing  14.400,  the  number  of  square  inches 
in  a  square,  by  the  exposed  area  of  a  shingle  will  give 
the  number  required  to  cr.ver  100  square  feet  of  roof. 

In  estimating  the  number  of  shingles  required,  an 
alUnvance  should  always  be  made  for  waste. 

Estimates  on  cost  of  shingle  roofs  are  usually  given 
per  1,000  shingles. 

Table  for  Estimating^  Shingles 


Length  of 
ShiuRlr* 


Expomire  to  •*'°-°[?^   Ft.  of  koof  Cov- 
Wmi hVr  ""^  ^'y  "*'"  ShinglfM. 


Inchtt. 


i<;  in. 

18 
at 
24 


4 
S 

6 

7 
S 


4  In  Wide.  ,  (i  ii,  wi.le. 

Ill 
139 

167 
194 
232 


No  ofShinglts  Rfquired 
for  100  8q.  Fl.  of  Roof. 


4  la.  Wirlr.  I  «  In.  Wide. 


167 

giKj 

208 

720 

250 

Uk) 

2(n 

514 

.11.1 

4'i'> 

6(X) 
480 
400 

343 
3™> 


Siding,  Flooring,  and  Laths 

One-fifth   more  siding  aiul  llooring   is  needed  than 
the'  number  of  s.piarc-  f.-.-t  of  surface  to  be  covered 
because  of  the  lap  in  the  siding  matching. 

1,000  laths   will   cover  70  yards  ..f   surface,  and  11 
pounds  of  i.ith  nails  will  nail  them  <.n.    Kight  bushtis  of 
good   lime.  16  bushels  of  sand,  and  i  bushel  of  hair 
will  make  enough  good  mortar  to  plaster   too  square 
yards.  ^ 

Excavations 
Excavations  are  measur.-d  bvthe  yard  (j;  cubic  feet) 
and  irr.gular  depths  or  surfaces  are  generally  averaged 
in  practice. 


USEFUL  TABLES 


185 


Nwnb«r  of  Nails  Required  in  Carptatry  Work 
To  case  and  hang  one  door,  I  pound. 
To  case  and  hang  one  window,  H  pound. 
Base,  100  lineal  feet,  I  pound. 
To  put  c.n  rafters,  joists,  etc.,  3  pounds  to  i.oc»  feet. 
To  put  up  studding,  same. 
Tolaya6.inch  pine  floor,  15  pounds  to  1,000  feet. 

Siset  of  Boxes  for  Different  Meaaures 
A    box    24    inches    long  by    16   inches  wide,    and 
28  inches  deep  will  contain  a  barrel,  or  3  bushels. 

A    box    24    inches    long    by    16   inches   wide,    and 
14  inches  deep  will  contain  half  a  barrel. 

A  box   16  inches  square  and  8|  inches  deep,  will 
contain  l  bushel. 

A  box   16  inches  by  8|  inches  wide  and  8  inches 
deep,  will  contain  half  a  bushel. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8S   inches  square  and  8  inches 
deep,  will  contain  I  peck. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8  inches  square  and  4I  inches 
deep,  will  contain  1  gallon. 

A   box    8   inches  by  4   inches  square  and  4t   inches 
deep,  will  contain  half  a  gallon. 

A  box  4  inches  by  4  inches  square  and  4^  inches 
deep,  will  contain  i  quart. 

A  box  4  feet  long,  3  feet  5  inches  wide,  and  2  feet 
8  inches  deep,  will  contain  I  ton  of  coal. 


Masonry 
Stone  masonry  is  measured  by  two  systems,  quarry- 
man's  and  mason's  measurements. 


1  mA/-;i'. 


MICROCOPY   HESOIUTION   TEST   CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


'i'       140 


12.5 


1^ 

2£ 
1.8 


A  /IPPLIED  INA/IGE     Inc 

S7.  1653   East   Mom   Street 

=^  Rochester.   Ne«  York        14609       USA 

,^B  (716)   482  -  0300  -  Phone 

^S  (716)   288  -  5989  -  Tax 


b-*'Sf'?r**''«fe 


!HP^ 


1 86 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


larger  than  Vo-xs'o"'^  ™°"°'  °'  "'^"■'"K' 

courses  by  lineal  feet      All  =  ii  ^^*^^' ^^•''^^  and  base 

,Bx^.pJc.,.ra„/:it!;,tJ;^if.r,-rr: 

(^"Xt*;,"  "'"^"''  "■'^--<'  "-  '"^  -bic  yard 


USEFUL   TABLES 


187 


A  cord  of  stone,  3  bushels  of  lime  and  a  cubic  yard 
of  sand,  will  lay  100  cubic  feet  of  wall. 

Cement,  l  bushel,  and  sand,  2  bushels,  will  cover 
3)4  square  yards  i  inch  thick,  4>^  square  yards  ^  inch 
thick,  and  6^  square  yards  }4  inch  thick;  i  bushel  of 
cement  and  i  of  sand  will  cover  2%  square  yards 
I  inch  thick,  3  square  yards  ji  inch  thick  and 
4}4  square  yards  yi  inch  thick. 


Brick  Work 

Brick  work  is  generally  measured  by  1,000  bricks 
laid  in  the  wall.  In  consequence  of  variations  in  size 
of  bricks,  no  rule  for  volume  of  laid  brick  can  be 
exact.    The  following  scale  is,  however,  a  fair  average: 

7  com.  bricks  to  a  super,  ft.    4  in.  walL 

14        '•  •<  ..  ••  ..         g     I.  .< 

21      *•  "  *•  «•         «*     jn    •«         ii 

3g  *i  l(  II  41  II        ,0      II  ,1 

35      "  •'  ••  II         i<     22    "         " 

Corners  are  not  measured  twice,  as  in  stone  work. 
Openings  over  2  feet  square  are  deducted.  Arches  are 
counted  from  the  spring.  Fancy  work  counted  lyi 
bricks  for  i.     Pillars  are  measured  on  their  face  only. 

A  cubic  yard  of  mortar  requires  i  cubic  yard  of  sand 
and  9  bushels  of  lime,  and  will  fill  30  hods. 

One  thousand  bricks  closely  stacked  occupy  about 
56  cubic  feet. 

One  thousand  old  bricks,  cleaned  and  loosely 
stacked,  occupy  about  72  cubic  feet. 

One  superficial  foot  of  gauged  arches  requires 
ID  bricks. 

Pavements,  according  to  size  of  bricks,  take  38  brick 
on  fiat  and  60  brick  on  edge  per  square  yard,  on  an 
average. 


;  111 


i88 


MODERN   CARPENTRY 


Five  couiies  of  brick  will  lay  i  foot  in  height  on  a 
chimney,  6  bricks  in  a  course  will  make  a  flue  4  inches 
wide  and  12  inches  long,  and  8  bricks  in  a  course  will 
make  a  flue  8  inches  wide  and  l6  inches  long. 


Slating 

A  square  of  slate  or  slating  is  100  superficial  feet. 

In  measuring,  the  width  of  eaves  is  allowed  at  the 
widest  part.  Hips,  valleys  and  cuttings  are  to  be 
measured  lineal,  and  6  inches  extra  is  allowed. 

The  thickness  of  slates  required  is  from  ^\  to  ,V  of 
an  inch,  and  their  weight  varies  when  lapped  from  ^ 
to  6^  pounds  per  square  foot. 

The  "laps"  of  slates  vary  from  2  to  4  inches,  the 
standard  assumed  to  be  3  inches. 


To  Compute  the  Number  of  Slates  of  a  GiTen 
Size  Required  per  Square 

Subtract  3  inches  from  the  length  of  the  slate,  mul- 
tiply the  remainder  by  the  width  and  divide  by  2. 
Divide  14,400  by  the  number  so  found  and  the  result 
will  be  the  number  of  slates  required. 

Table  showing  number  of  slates  and  pounds  of  nails 
required  to  cover  100  square  feet  of  roof. 


Sues  of  Slate 

Length  of  Exposure. 

No.  Required. 

Nails  Required. 

14  iu.  X  28  in. 

I2|  in. 

83 

.6    lbs. 

12        X  24 

loi 

114 

•833 
I. 

II        X  22 

94 

138 

10       X  20 

31 

165 

1.33 

9        X  18 

7i 

214 

1.5 

8        X  16 

6J 

277 

2. 

7        X  14 

Si 

377 

2.66 

6        X  12 

4i 

533 

3.8 

USEFUL   TABLES 


189 


Approximate  Weight  of  Materials  for  Roofs 


Material. 


Corrugated  galvanized  iron,  No.  20,  unboarded 

Copper,  16  oz.  standing  seaii 

Felt  and  asphalt,  without  sheathing 

Glass,  }i  in.  thick 

Hemlock  sheathing,  i  in.  thick .-. 

Lead,  about  H  in-  thick 

Latli-and-plasler  ceiling  (ordinary) 

Mackite,  i  in.  thick,  with  plaster 

Neponset  loofing  felt.  2  layers 

Spruce  sheathing,  i  in.  thick 

Slate,  ,3^  in.  thick,  3  in.  double  lap 

Slate,  Ys  in.  thick,  3  in.  double  lap 

Shingles.  6  in.  x  18  in.,   Jjj  to  weather 

Skylight  of  glass.  /\,  to  '/i  in.,  including  frame 

Shig  roof,  4-plv 

Terne  Plate,  IC.  without  sheathing 

Terne  Plate,  IX.  without  sheathing 

Tiles  rplain),  loK  in.  xb]{  x  %  \n.—sii\n.  to  weather 
Tiles  (Spanish)  14 >^  in.  x  io3^  in.  — 7^  in.  to  weather. 

White-pine  sheathing,  i  in.  thick 

Yellow-pine  sheathing,  i  in.  thick 


Average 
Weight.  Lb. 
per  Sq.  Ft. 


2X 
IK 

3 
2 

6  to  8 
6  to  8 
10 
H 

(>% 

4'A 

2 

4  to  10 

4 

'A 
% 

iS 

^A 
'A 

4 


Snow  and  Wind  Loads 

Data  in  regard  to  snow  and  wind  loads  are  necessary 
in  connection  with  the  design  of  roof  trusses. 

Snow  Load.— When  the  slope  of  a  roof  is  over 
12  inches  rise  per  foot  of  horizontal  run.  a  snow  and 
accidental  load  of  8  pounds  per  square  foot  is  ample. 
When  the  slope  is  under  12  inches  rise  per  foot  of  run, 
a  snow  and  accidental  load  of  12  pounds  per  square 
foot  should  be  used.  The  snow  load  acts  vertically, 
and  therefore  should  be  added  to  the  dead  load  in 
designing  roof  trusses.  The  snow  load  may  be 
neglected  when  a  high  wind  pressure  has  been  consid- 
ered, as  a  great  wind  storm  wouid  very  likely  remove 
all  the  snow  from  the  roof. 


■MM. 


rt?'^: 


»9o  MODERN   CARPENTRY 

Wind  Load  -The  wind  is  considered  as  blowing  in 
a  honzontal  direction,  but  the  resulting  pressure  upon 

he  Zt  "  tI''''"  'f'"   ""^'"''   ^''  ••'■^'^^  ^"S'-)  to 
the  slope.     The  wind  pressure  against  a  vertical  plane 

depends  on  the  velocity  of  the  wind,   and,  as  ascer- 

wTh      f  '^^t'""^-  ^'''''  ^'■^"^'  S^^^'^^  ^t  Mount 
Washington.  N.  H.,  is  as  follows: 

yf^octfy.  Pressure. 

(Mi.  perHr.)  (Lb.  per  Sq.    Ft.) 

^ °i Fresh  breeze. 

30 '-^ Stiff  breeze. 

40  f    Strong  wind. 

Jo ,^-^ High  wind. 

1^ '°o Storm. 

80;;:;:;:::.""." 2^6 Violent  storm. 

,00  '    Hurricane. 

40.0 Violent  hurricane. 

The  wind  pressure  upon  a  cylindrical  surface  is  one- 
width      ''  "^°"  ^  ^^^  ^""'^^^^  ""^  ^^"^  '""""^  ^^'^^-  ^"^ 
Since  the  wind  is  considered  as  traveling  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction,    it  is  evident  that  the    more    nearlv 
vertical  the  slope  of  the  roof,    he  greater  will  be  the 
pressure,  and  the  more  nearly  ho-izontal  the  slope   the 
ess  will  be  the  pressure.     The  following  table  gives 
the  pressure  exerted  upon  roofs  of  different  slopes    bv 
a  wmd   pressure  of  40  pounds  per  square  foot  on  a 
vertical  plane,  which  is  equivalent  in   intensity  to  a 
violent  hurricane. 

UNITED  STATES  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 
Land  Meat'tre 


'-'5«5:.fv-:'^«^5io^ppv« 


USEFUL  TABLES 


191 


C'ibic  or  Solid  Measure 

I  cubic  yard  =  27  cubic  feet. 

I  cubic    foot  =  1,728  cubic  inches. 

I  cubic    foot  =  2,200  cylindrical  inchefc 

I  cubic    foot  =  3,300  spherical  inches. 

t  cubic    foot  =  6,600  conical  inches. 

Linear  Measure 


rod. 


12   Inches  (in.) =  i  loot . 

3    feet -   'yard 

5.5  yards 

40    rods -I 

8    furlongs  _ =  i 

in.  ft.  yd. 

36=        3     =         I 
198=       16.5=         5-5 
7,920  =     660     =     220 

(1,360  r-  5,280       =  1,7' 


.ft. 

.yd. 
.rd. 


furlong fur. 

mile »...mi. 


rd.     fur.    mL 


=    40  =  1 

=  320  =:  8 


144 

30} 

160 
640 
Sq.  mi. 


Square  Measure 

square  inches  (sq.  in.)  =  i  square  foot  ...„ sq.  ft. 

square  feet =  i  square  yard  sq.  yd. 

square'  =  i  square  rod sq.  rd. 

square  1.  =  i  acre A. 

acres =■  i  square  mile„ sq.  nu. 

A.      Sq.  rd.        Sq.  yd.  Sq.  ft.  Sq.  in. 


I  z=  640  =  102,400  =  3,097,600  =  27,878,400  =  4,oi4,439,^<x) 
Miscellaneous  Measures  and  Weights 


I  perch  of  stone  =  i  ft.  X  1  ft.  6  in.  X  16  ft 
I  cord  of  wood,  clay,  etc.,  =  4  ft.  X  4  ft;  X 
I  chaldron  =  36  bushels  or  57.25  ft.  cubic. 
I  cubic  foot  of  send,  solid,  weighs  112*  lbs. 
I  cubic  foot  of  sand,  loose,  weighs  95  lbr>. 
I  cubic  foot  of  earth,  ^oose,  weighs  935  lbs. 
I  cubic  ,'iKjt.  of  common  soil  weighs  124  lbs. 
I  cubic  foot  of  strong  soil  weighs  127  lbs. 
1  cubic  in>it  of  clay  weighs  120  to  135  Ibs.^ 
I  cubic  foot  of  clay  and  stc^c  weighs  160'  lbs. 
I  cubic  toot  of  common  stone  weighs  1(0  lbs. 
1  cubic  foot  of  brick  weighs  95  to  120  lbs. 
I  cubic  foot  of  granite  weighs  169  to  180  lbs. 
1  cubic  foot  of  marble  \,reighs  166  to  170  lbs. 
I  cubic  yard  of  sand  weighs  3,037  lbs. 
I  cubic  yard  of  common  soil  weighs  3,429  lbs. 


6  in.  =  24. 75  ft.  cubic. 
8  ft.  =  128  ft.  cubic. 


•5>fv*^Fwr>!aE^^Rf*«?^K*: 


1'^ 


«9t 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 
^Safe  Bearing;  Load* 

Brick  and  Stone  Masonry. 


mortar., 


lirick  Work. 

fe  ^^-^'.'^^  ^"  '■'"«  •nortar.. 
Har^'  ^-H  ?°  Portland  cement  mortaV 
Hard,  laid  in  Rosendale  cement 

Granite,  capstone »^onry. 

Squared  stonework. 

oandstone,  capstone....      

Squared  stonework. 


Lb 

Sq. 


>er 


Squared  stonework. 


J"^^J«-  lajd  ?n  limemortar."::.';.' 

Kubble,  laid  in  cement  mortar 

£i^H££fte,i_P^aml^sa^ 


Foundation  Soils. 


Rock,  hardest  in  native  bed 

fc  ^  ^'*  e*'^'^'"  '"ason.^;;:: 

Hqual  to  best  brick..  ^ 

Clay.  dry.  in  thick  beds! 

Moderately  dry.  in  thick'beds:;:;:.:::;;;: 

Gravel  and  couV^'sandV  well"  tcmfin;;.'.'!" 

aean^!!.;-:"^  "^"  ceiu'eS..-:.^.:!: 

Qujcksand.  ajjuvial"  so'ii,"etc.'. 


loo 
200 
150 

700 

350 
350 

'75 
80 
150 
500 
aijo 
80 
150 
150 


T 
perr 


lOi 


»5-. 
4     6 
2    4 

1-  2 
8-10 

4-  6 

2-  4 

5-  I 


10  Inches  in 


P,Yf!.^%    .  .'°  diameter  holds      3O50  gallons 

pit^        r    '°.d«amoter  hokk     "^58  gallons 

•rSon  fH^  .in  diameter  hoUk ""'  gallons 

Twelwi?-  '"^.d'ameter  holds...;:: ?59  gallons 

Pwln  /^^'°^.'^'"«^ter  holds.... 827  gallons 

Ten  W  f  'i'.'^'^'^eter  holds : 7o5  gallons 

K?nw    *?  djameter  holds....        592  gallons 

Pi^hf  *    *\°^'?'"^*«^'"  holds....  489g.il!ons 

I'i?^^  rV? 'l'"'™^^-'"  »Jo'ds...  396  gallons 

sfJ^^nH  ®*  in  diameter  holds.... 3i3  gallons 

S  X  fee^  fn^n/'^'^^^^'"  diameterholds =39  gallons 

P fj/  .°  diameter  holds....  206  gallons 

P™,r       , '°  *^'^'"^f^''  holds    176  gallons 

four  «id  one-haif  feet  in  diani;.ter  hoVus '"  S^"«°s 

99  gallons 


-^^^m^ 


USEFUL  TABLES 

Poor  feet  in  diameter  holds 

'Ihree  feet  in  diameter  holds 

Two  ai.d  one-half  feet  in  diameter  holds 

Two  feet  in  diameter  holds 

Number  of  Nails  and  Tacks  per  P  lund 

TACKS. 

Length. 
H        inch 
3-iO 


Name. 
3  penny 

3 


NAILS. 
Size, 
fine 


4 
5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 
13 

i6 

30 

30 
40 
50 

6 
8 

10 
la 


s 
Hi 

^'4 

iH 

2H 

2'A 

2'/2 

2H 

3 

3H 

3>4 

4 

4H 

5 

s'A 

fence  2 

•*     2'A 
"    3 
"     3« 


*.. 


No. 

per  lb.  Name, 

inch  760  nails  i    oz. 

••    480    "  I'A"- 

"    300    "  2     ". 

"    200    "  aH'"- 

"    160    *•  3 

"     128    "  4 

"            Q2         "  6 

"       72     '•  8 

60     "  10 

44     "  12 

..       32     ..  14 

24     "  16 

"       iS     "  18 

14     "  20 

12     ••  22 

"  80  "  24 
..       50     •• 

"       34     " 
"       29     " 

Wind  Pressures  on  Roofs 

( Pounds  per  Square  Foot. ) 


H 
5-16 

H 

7-16 

0-16 

H-16 

,i3-i6 


..15 
.1 
..I  I 


16 


16 


193 

78  gallons 
44  gallons 
30  gallons 
19  gallons 


No. 
per  lb. 
.16,000 
.10,666 
.  8,000 
..  6,400 

.  5.333 
,.  4,000 
..  2,666 

..    f.OOO 

..  1.600 
..  1.333 
..  1.143 
..  1,000 
..   888 

800 
..   /27 

666 


Rise,  h.che*  per 
Foot  of  Run. 


4 
6 
8 
la 
16 
18 
24 


Angle  w:th 
Horizontal. 


18° 
26° 
33° 
45' 
53° 
56° 
63° 


25' 
33' 
41' 

O' 

7' 
20' 

27' 


Pitch. 
Proportion  of 
Riie  to  Span. 


\A'ind  Preiturc, 
Nornnal  to  Slop*. 


16.8 

23.7 
29.1 
36.1 
38.7 

39-3 
40.0 


In  addition  to  wind  and  snow  loads  upon  roofs,  the 
weight  of  the  principals  or  roof  trusses,  including  the 
other  features  of  the  construction,  should  be  figured  in 
the  estimate.  For  light  roofs,  having  a  span  of  not 
over  50  feet,  and  not  required  to  support  any  ceiling, 
the  weight  of  the  steel  construction  may  be  taken  at 
5  pounds  per  square  foot;  for  greater  spans,  I  pound 
per  square  foot  should  be  added  for  each  10  feet 
increase  in  the  span. 


^^f^^i^^r-^ 


fi 


"^i^^J^"^ 


SU<*f»LEM£Nt  to 
MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERV. 

The  aim  in  preparing  this  has  been  to  supply  neces-« 
sar)'  information  for  enabling  a  practical  joiner  to  be 
come  a  competent  airtight-case  maker,  without  th« 
tedium  of  waiting,  perhaps  for  years,  until  chance  brings 
him  into  contact  with  one  who  has  made  a  specialty  of 
this  class  of  work.  I  have  endeavored,  by  means  of 
illustrations,  to  elucidate  as  clearly  as  possible  the  poii  ts 
which  are  so  frequently  the  cause  of  failure  to  those 
who,  while  having  a  good  knowledge  of  wood-working, 
have  not  had  the  advantages  of  direct  practical  tuition 
in  the  intricacies  of  airtight-case  making. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  explanations,  I  wou'J 
point  out  that  the  first  and  most  important  rule  in  jom- 
ery  is  to  have  the  stuff  platied  up  true,  and  gauged 
accurately  to  size. 


I.      AIRTIGHT  WALL  CASE  WITH  GLASS  OR  WOOD  ENDS. 

The  general  drawings  of  the  airtight  wall-case  with 
glaz«;d  ends  are  given  in  Figs,  l  to  5  and  the  details  in 
Figs.  6  to  9. 

Framezi'ork.  Figs.  6  and  7  give  the  width  of  the  top 
and  bottom  rails  for  the  front  frame  of  the  case,  and,  by 
adding  the  width  of  the  top  and  bottom  door-rails  to 
each  we  determine  the  width  of  the  rails  required  for 
the  ends  of  the  case,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  angle- 
stilc  must  be  J.4  inch  more  in  thickness  than  the  thick- 

i9j 


"Sl^I^^ 


^t:!^ 


^.m-^^-^^i^i^^^^- 


19^ 


MODERN  CARPfiNTRV 


Fig.  1. 


ness  of  the  doors,  in  order  to  allow  of  a  rebate  being 
formed  to  receive  the  glass  at  the  ends  of  the  case.  (See 
M  Fig.  8.) 


i}'^^W\»}. 


."^^yi-Y 


CASE  MAKING 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig,  5. 


In  setting  out  the  framewofK  (which  is  mortised  and 
tenoned  together  in  the  ordinary  way)  the  face  shoul- 
ders of  the  front  rails  should  be  H  inch  longer  than  the 


'Ht#'i2k 


K4^r'- 


<-«!Swiir»..*a 


^rar*'-^' 


i  :j 


. 


198 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


back  shoulders.  An  eighth  inch  bead— for  which  the 
allowance  has  been  made — is  worked  on  the  angle-stiles 
and  bottom  rail  only,  the  edge  of  the  top  rail  being  left 
square.  The  moulding  which  is  planted  round  the  case, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  serves  to  break  the  joint  of  the  doors. 
The  shoulders  on  the  end  rails  are  square  with  each 
other,  the  rebate  being  the  same  depth  as  the  moulding. 
Airtight  joints.  To  make  successfully  the  airtight 
joint  between  the  angle-stile  of  the  case  and  the  hanging 
stile  of  the  door  (see  Fig.  8)  thrc^  planes  are  required. 
The  first  plane  is  used  on  the  angle-stile  for  forming  at 
the  same  time  the  two  grooves,  each  3/16  inch  wide; 


Fig.  3. 

the  second  is  used  for  working  the  two  fillets  together 
and  the  third  for  working  the  two  hollows  in  the  door 
stiles. 

The  front  part  of  the  frame  must  now  be  fitted  to- 
gether and  the  joints  at  the  back  of  the  frame  cleared 
off,  to  allow  the  airtight  planes  to  be  worked  from  the 
back  of  the  frame,  that  is,  from  the  inside  of  the  case, 
as  the  doors  would  not  close  accurately  if  they  were 
worked  from  the  face  or  outside. 

After  the  front  frame  has  been  fitted  together  as  de- 
scribed, it  must  be  taken  apart,  and  the  angle-stiles 
worked  with  plane  No.  i.     When  this  has  been  done. 


^^am 


CASE  MAKING 


199 


Fig.  6. 

the  fillets  must  be  glued  in  the  grooves,  and,  when  set, 
rounded  over  with  plane  No.  2.  The  fillets  will  not 
require  to  be  taken  to  the  exact  width  before  rounding 
over,  as  plane  No.  2  works  all  surplus  stuff  away. 


i'-!-i 


20O 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


i 


For  the  joint  between  the  top  and  bottom  rails  of  doors 
and  the  airtight  fillets  respectively,  two  planes   are   re- 


quired; the  first  for  sticking  the  airtight  fillet,  and  the 
second  for  working  the  small  hollow  on  the  door  rails  to 
match  the  fillet. 


CASE  MAKING 


201 


Continuing  with  the  framework.     After  rounding  the 
fillets   in  the  angle-stiles,   groove  the  top  and  bottom 


rails  to  receive  the  tongue  on  the  airtight  fillets  as  shown 
in  Figs.  6  and  7  and  rebate  the  bottom  rails  to  rest  on 
the  plinth,  Fig.  7.  The  top  and  bottom  rails  at  each  end 


203 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


of  the  case  are  trenched  to  receive  respectively  the  ends 
of  the  inside  top  and  inside  bottom,  Fig.  5.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  make  these  trenches  in  such  a  way  as  to 
keep  the  inside  top  and  the  inside  bottom  in  the  positions 
shown  in  the  Figs.  6  and  y.   Rebate  the  back  angle-stile 


Fig.  9. 

of  each  end  frame  to  receive  the  back,  as  in  Fig.  8,  and 
run  a  small  hollow  in  the  angle  of  the  rebate.  Glue  and 
pin  the  airtight  fillet  on  the  front  edges  of  the  inside 
top  and  bottom  respectively ;  also  glue  the  fillet  on  the 
back  of  each  in  order  to  strengthen  the  airtight  fillet,  and 


CASE  MAKING 


203 


make  out  the  thickness  to  receive  the  glue-blocks  as 
shown.  An  ovolo  or  other  moulding  is  now  worked  on 
the  external  angles  of  the  two  front  angle-stiles  as  shown 
in  Fig.  8,  the  moulding  being  stopped  in  a  line  with  t'je 
top  and  be     im  rails  respectively  of  the  doors,  Fig.  i. 

The  body  of  the  case  must  now  be  put  together,  care 
being  taken  to  glue-block  the  front  frame  and  ends  se- 
curely to  the  bottom  and  top,  as  we'l  as  behind  the  plinth, 
which  is  screwed  to  the  bottom  raiiS  from  the  back. 

Match-boards  are  used  for  th(  back,  the  boards  being 
run  to  the  floor,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Mitre  the  cornice 
round  the  front  and  ends,  screwir.or  it  frcm  the  back  of 
the  top  rails;  cut  the  dust-board  to  fit  on  the  top  edges 
of  the  rails  and  bevel  against  the  cornice;  having  pre- 
viously rebated  it  to  receive  the  back  of  the  t  se.  Be- 
fore the  back  is  fastened,  the  cloth.  Fig.  8,  should  be 
plav;ed  in  the  rebate  o'  the  stile,  the  fillet  placed  on  top 
of  the  cloth  and  pressed  into  the  lioUow,  and  then  fas- 
tened to  the  stile  with  screws,  the  cloth  thus  being  se- 
curely held  b«tween  the  fillet  ard  the  stile.  The  cloth 
can  now  be  streiclied  taui  and  fixed  at  the  other  end  in 
the  same  way,  and  the  boards  fasten      -'n. 

Doors.  In  planing  up  the  stuflF  for  .  ,  doors,  the  same 
gauge  must  be  used  as  that  for  the  frame  of  the  case. 
When  setting  out  for  the  doors,  take  the  width  and 
height  accurately,  and  allow  1/16  inch  on  the  height 
for  fitting  in.  The  width  is  set  out  as  for  ordinary 
folding  doors,  viz. :  allowing  half  the  hook-joint  on  each 
door,  and  ]/&  inch  for  jointmg  and  fitting  in.  The  best 
vay  to  allow  for  fitting  is  to  have  each  stile  1/16  inch 
greater  in  width  '■  m  the  finished  size  required. 

The  rails  abutting  against  each  angle-stlle  are  single- 
mortised   and   tenoned   together   as    in   ordinary   work, 


I 


1  ?, 


2Q4 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


but  double  mortisea  and  tenons  must  be  used  at  the  top 
and  tottom  of  each  meeting  stile,  as  s.iown  m  Fig.  9. 
The  reason  for  using  the  double  tenon  is,  that  if  a  sin- 
gle tenon  were  used,  the  ends  of  the  tenon  would  slip 
off  after  the  hook-joint  had  been  made. 

Presuming  :  ie  doors  to  be  wedged  up,  level  off  the 
joints  at  the  shoulders,  when  the  doors  will  be  ready 
for  jomting  together  and  fitting  to  the  case. 

Hook-Joint.    The   following   is    the   best  method   of 
making  a  well  fitting  joint.     First  rebate  the  stiles  (the 
rebate  bemg  ^  inch  less  in  width  than  the  thickness  of 
the  doors,  and  5/16  inch  deep),  and  next  bevel  the  edges 
of  the  doors,  bringing  the  rebate  to  a  depth  of  ^  inch, 
Fig.  8.    The  doors  must  now  be  worked  with  a  hollow 
and  round  on  the  edge  of  the  rebate  to  form  the  hook- 
joint.     For  this  purpose  a  hook-joint  plane  is  required. 
There  is  an  adjustable  depth-gauge  on  th-  side  of  the 
plane,  which  can  be  easily  set  for  working  dift.rcnt  thick- 
ness ;s  of  stuff.     B-fore  working  the  doors  with  the  plane 
It  IS  advisable  to  work  a  piece  of  stuff  of  the  same  thick- 
ness as  the  doors.     Cut  the  piece  thus  worked  into  two 
and  put  the  joint  together.     This  will  test  the  accuracy 
of  the  setting  of  the  plane.    If  the  faces  do  not  come 
flush  with  each  other,  the  gauge  on  the  plane  must  be 
raised  or  lowered  accordingly. 

Having  fitted  the  meeting  stiles,  place  the  doors  to- 
gether across  the  bench,  as  they  can  thus  be  more  easily 
taken  to  the  exact  width  and  height  of  the  frame  of  the 
case.  After  the  doors  have  been  fitted  in  the  opening 
work  with  the  airtight  planes  as  previously  instructed' 
always  remembering  to  hold  the  fence  of  plane  No.  3  on 
the  back  side  of  the  door  while  forming  the  hollows  on 
the  hanging  stiles.    With  plane  No.  2  the  small  hollow 


CASE  MAKING 


2C5 


on  the  top  and  bottom  rails  to  match  the  airtight  fillet  is 
worked. 

After  working  the  doors  as  described,  clean  oflf  the 
back  side,  place  the  doors  in  position,  and  clean  off  the 
face  to  the  level  of  the  frame.    Take  the  door?  out  and 


Fig.  10. 


work  the  bead  on  the  joint  between  the  doors,  Fig.  8. 
This  bead  is  Hatter  than  usual  and  has  a  very  small 
quirk. 

The  doors  are  hung  to  the  frame,  each  by  thrte  hinges. 
The  top  and  bottom  hinges  are  usually  kept  their  own 


206 


i 


i 


i 


i 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


depth  from  the  top  and  bottom  edges  of  the  doors  re- 
he  edt''  %h '  r^^,'"''  '"^^  "•"  "^  ^y^  '"^hes  from 
the  edge.    The  handles  on  the  meeting  stiles  are  re 

specnvely  about  9  inches  from  the  upper  and  lower  edge" 

small  s1.v' Jf"  '^^T  """-'*  ^'  '^^'■^^""y  P^^^^^d  with 
small  slip,  of  wood  between  the  edges  of  the  elass  and 

H,e  frame  of  the  d«,,  i„  order  t.  ifeep  the  framr  igTd 

The   woodwork   being  so  slight,   the  doors   would  fag 

when  hung  .f  the  glass  were  not  packed  tightly    as  aU 

the  weight  of  the  glass  would  fall  L  the  bottom  rkif 


000  R 


Hangup  tUU,  of  framt 


ODOR 


Fig.  11. 


for  fin''""  .J  °"°^'"^  ''  '^^  ^'''  "method  to  adopt 
way  thf  shelve""  "'^'  '''''''''  '''  ^^en  fitted  in  th^ 
To  the  hn?  7!.''"  ^  "'^^"^  *°  ^""y  ^^q"'^^d  height. 
To  the  back  of  the  case  screw  two  pieces  of  iron   one  at 

cat  't*  "''"''"^  '^"^  *^^  *«P  '«  ^he  bottom  of  the 
case.     These  must  previously    have    been    drilled    and 

feeing  /,  ,nch  from  centre  to  centre,  and  each  hole  beinir 
large  enough  to  rec.ve  a  3/16  inch  .  ew.  A  maUeabl"^ 
jron  bracket  about  3  inches  long  on  the  back  "dg e-l'he' 
length  of  the  top  edge  being  the  width  of  the  shelflis 
now  required,  having  a  small  piece  projecting  a^ve  the 
op  edge  m  which  is  drilled  a  plain  hole,  fnd  havit 
a  pm  near  the  bottom  edge.     The  pin  at  th    botU>m  edgf 


CASE  MAKING 


ao7 


is  placed  in  one  of  the  holes  in  the  tapped  bar,  and  a 
3/16  inch  screw  is  passed  through  the  hole  at  the  top 
edge  and  screwed  into  the  bar,  thus  securing  the  bracket 
firmly.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  same  distance  be- 
tween the  centres  of  any  two  holes  in  the  bar. 

Fig.  10  shows  a  horizontal  section  through  a  show- 
case having  solid  ends. 

Fig.  II  shows  a  horirontal  section  through  the  centre 
hanging;  stile  in  the  jnt  frame  of  a  wide  showcase, 
when  two  pairs  of  doors  are  required.  It  is  worked  in 
the  same  manner  as  previously  described  for  hanging 
stiles. 


*  »  »  • 


Fig.  12. 

Fig.  12  shows  a  section  of  a  cross  bar  in  doors.  This 
is  only  required  where  sheet  glass  is  used.  Each  end  of 
the  bar  is  sunk  into  the  moulding  of  the  door-stiles.  The 
saddle  is  cut  between  the  rebates,  and  secured  to  the  bar. 

Plinths  separate  from  the  case.  If  the  showcase  is 
over  6  feet  6  inches  in  height,  or  the  plinth  is  of  a  greater 
depth  than  12  inches,  it  is  advisable  to  make  the  plinth 
separate  from  the  case.  Instead  of  the  bottom  rail  being 
rebated  behind  the  plinth,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  a  frame 
must  be  made  out  of  V/,  inch  by  3  inch  stuff  dovetailed 
together  at  the  angles;  and  two  or  three  bearers  should 


dod 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


60 


be  mortised  and  tenoned  between  the  front  and  back 
rails  (as  the  length  of  the  case  may  require).  At  each 
angle,  and  under  each  end  of  the  bearers,  a  leg  is  stump- 


Vi-  ■'■jLv. 


CAs£  Making 


200 


tenoned  into  the  under  side  of  the  rails  to  support  the 
case.  When  this  is  done,  the  plinth  should  be  tnitrc.l 
round  the  frame.  It  should  U  screwed  from  the  back, 
and  glue-b'.ocks  used  in  all  the  angles. 


Fig.  14. 


An  isometrical  projection  of  a  counter-case  is  shown 
in  Fig.  3.  The  top,  sides,  and  front  are  of  plate-glass. 
Mirrors  are  placed  on  the  inside  of  the  doors  at  the  back 
of  the  case.  The  divisions  on  the  bottom  show  the  posi- 
tion of  the  trays. 


s == 

— JBj, 

yia  -     — 

t 

) 

^ 

t 

? 

?" 

SCALe 

Fig.  15. 

•'  ^  commencing  work,  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  draw  Figs.  14  and  15  full  /e,  to  enable  the  taking 
off  and  working  to  an  exact  si.  of  the  various  carts 
required  to  be  done. 


SJ^'l 


aid 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


Bottom  of  case.  Commence  with  tlie  frame,  which 
should  be  made  out  of  well-seasoned  pine.  The  width 
of  the  bottom  frame  will  Iw  the  extreme  width  of  the 
case  less  the  thickness  of  the  mouldinfj  on  the  front  edge 
and  jyi  inch  for  a  hardwood  slip  on  the  back  edge  of 
the  frame,  Fig.  17.  The  length  will  be  the  extreme 
length  of  the  case  minus  two  thicknesses  of  moulding. 

Mortise  and  tenon  the  frame  together,  and  rebate  it 
to  receive  y»  inch  panels  flush  on  the  inside- .  then  glue 
up  and  take  to  size.  The  hardwoi, ,  slip  can  now  be 
jointed  and  glued  on.  a  tongucd  and  grooved  joint  being 
used  for  the  purpose.     After  this  has  Wen  done,  the  air- 


i 


Fig.  Itt. 


tight  rebate  to  receive  the  doors  should  be  worked  on 
the  hardwood  slip.  In  order  to  make  a  good  job  of  the 
rebate,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  a  special  plane  for 
working  both  the  relxite  and  the  small  half-round  tongue 
at  one  time. 

To  complete  the  bottom,  groove  the  front  edge  and 
both  ends  for  the  tongue,  then  mitre  and  fix  the  mould- 
ing to  the  frame.  The  moulding  must  be  specially  noted. 
It  must  project  above  the  bottom  3/16  inch  to  form  a 
rebate  for  the  glass;  and  the  first  member,  i.  e.  the  part 
projecting,  must  be  rounded  to  intersect  with  the  upright 
angle-bars.  Figs.  17  and  18,  with  mitre  into  the  mould- 
ings. 


CASE  MAKING 


311 


The  pan'ls  in  the  bottom  are  to  be  screwed  to  the 
frame.     Before  putting  the  whole  case  together,  they 


•1 


u 


must  be  taken  out  for  enabling  the  small  fillets  which  se- 
cure the  glass  to  be  easily  screwed  into  their  respective 
positif-ns. 


212 


il! 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


Framework  for  glass.  Plane  up  the  stuff  for  the 
round  angle-bars,  gauging  it  to  9/16  inch  square,  and 
rebate  j4  inch  deep  and  y»  inch  from  the  face  edges. 
The  angle  bars  will  then  appear  as  seen  in  Fig.  2.  For 
the  back  part  of  the  frame,  square  up  the  stuff  to  i>i 
inch  by  ^  inch  and  rebate  y^  inch  deep  and  >^  inch 
from  the  face  for  the  glass.     For  the  doors,  take  out 


Fig.  18. 


the  rebate  •:{  inch  deep  by  ?Ji  inch  wide;  bcvcl  the  re- 
bate to  5/16  inch  deep  on  the  outside  edi:^e  (as  shown 
in  Fig.  21).  and  work  the  hook-joint  plane  on  the  edge 
of  the  rebate.  It  is  best  to  make  the  mitred  joints  f.rst, 
as  they  require  careful  fitting  together,  and  the  bottom' 
ends  can  be  afterwards  easily  taken  to  the  required  length 
and  cut. 

Fig.  23  contains  isometrical  projections  showing  the 


CASE  MAKING 


213 


joints  at  the  intersection  of  the  front  and  the  end  angle- 
bars  with  the  upright  angle-bar.  The  position  of  the 
point  is  shown  at  A,  Fig.  23. 


Three  pieces  of  the  required  section.  Fig.  20,  should 
be  got  out,  and  the  joint  worked  as  follows: 

Commence  with  the  front  and  end  angle-bars,  cutting 


i*e 


iflW: 


214 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


a  square  mitre,  45  degrees  on  each  outside  face  of  both 
bars  bringing  the  external  angle  to  a  point,  as  shown  in 
tae  sketch.  Cut  the  mitre  down  to  the  rebate  line  and 
cut  the  surplus  away,  leaving  the  core  of  the  bar  pro- 
jectmg,  which  will  be  the  part  C.  The  internal  r  rt  of 
the  mitre  E  is  the  sigiit  line.     Square  down  and  across 


<*-    OOOft        -^ 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  21. 


Fig.  22. 


the  core;  then,  from  the  sight-line,  measure  distances 
of  ys  mch  and  7/16  inch;  the  resulting  lines  will  be  the 
shoulder  and  end  of  the  dovetail  respectively.  Cut  the 
core  off  at  the  longest  line  and  form  the  dovetail  as 
shown  m  the  sketch,  when  the  two  bars  can  be  fitted 
together. 

Proceed  with  the  upright  angle-bar.     Cut  the  square 


CASE  MAKING 


215 


mitre  a    before,  but  instead  of  cutting  to  the  depth  of 
the  rebate,  it  must  be  cut  1/32  inch  less.     From  the 


sightline  F  measure  the  same  distances  as  before,  viz., 
%  inch  and  7/16  inch.  Cut  off  at  the  longest  line,  tak- 
ing care  not  to  cut  through  the  projecting  point  of  the 


ai6 


m 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


'A 


CASE  MAKING 


217 


mitre,  then  take  out  the  core  C  back  to  the  shoulder  line, 
thus  leaving  a  thin  tenon  as  seen  in  the  sketch.  Cut 
the  tenon  back  1/16  inch  on  each  edge  and  continue  the 
mitre  through. 

It  will  now  be  necessary  to  mortise  the  front  and  end 
bars  to  receive  the  tenon  on  the  upright  angle-bar.  For 
the  mortises,  square  a  line  across  the  mitre  1/16  inch 
from  the  sight  line  E.  Gauge  a  line  down  the  mitre 
3/32  inch  from  the  face  of  the  bar,  leaving  1/32  inch 
(the  width  of  the  mortise)  between  the  core  of  the  bar 
and  the  gauge  line.  The  deoth  of  the  mortise  will  be 
to  within  ]/&  inch  from  the  other  face. 

The  work  must  be  done  ver>  carefully,  and  great  care 
taken  to  have  the  tenon  on  the  upright  angle-bar  of  the 
thickness  stated,  viz.,  1/32  inch,  as  the  result  of  having 
it  of  greater  thickness  would  be  that,  when  the  bar^,  were 
rounded,  it  would  work  through  to  the  face. 

front  angle-bar  will  have  tVe  same  joint  on  both 
ei  The  joint  at  the  back  of  the  case  on  the  end 

ang.  -bar  is  cut  as  shown  at  Fig.  24.  The  joint  at  th 
bottom  end  of  each  upright  angle-bar  is  simply  a  square 
shoulder  cut  to  the  depth  of  the  rebate,  leaving  the  core 
of  the  bar  projecting  to  form  a  stump  tenon.  The  bars 
are  afterwards  mitred  with  the  moulding  on  both  the 
front  and  the  end,  the  projecting  round  of  the  moulding 
being  cut  away  between  the  mitres  in  order  to  allow  the 
shoulder  to  butt  on  the  first  square  member,  which  will 
be  flush  with  the  bottom. 

Fig.  24  contains  isometrical  projections  showing  the 
joints  used  to  unite  the  back  rail  with  the  bac)--  upright 
angle-bar  for  for.r.ing  the  door  openinp ;  and  also  the 
end  angle-bar.  The  position  of  the  joint  will  be  dearly 
understood  by  referring  to  B,  Fig.  13. 


2l8 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


It  w.n  be  well  to  follow  the  same  system  as  in  the  last 
group  of  jomts,  i.  e.,  to  prepare  a  piece  of  the  required 
section  of  back  rail,  Fig.  .x.  which,  when  cut  into  two 
parts  can  be  used  for  both  the  back  rail  and  back  angle- 

tt;  ^^  T^.  ?''""  '"  '^^  ^'^*'°"  °f  the  two  being 
that  the  back  ra.l  rs  rebated  1/16  inch  less  than  the 
thickness  of  the  doors  instead  of  /«  inch  less  as  in  the  back 
upright  bar.  Fig.  ...     The  reason  for  this  is  to  a  low  the 


End. 
'  <8     €tngU  ^ 
^      bar     f 


S 


J 


Fig.  25. 


round  of  the  hook-joint  on  the  back  upright  bar  to  project 

t.  It  also  allows  a  contmuous  hollow  on  the  edges  of 
the  doors,  which  would  not  be  the  case  if  the  rebates 
were  kept  flush  with  each  other. 

The  end  angle-bar  is  dovetailed  into  the  back  rail  and 
^  also  mjtred  both  at  the  extreme  end  and  at  the  reba"e 
F.g.  25  shows  the  plan  of  this  joint.    It  will  be  observed 


CASE  MAKING 


219 


that  the  joint  has  been  left  open  to  show  the  bevel  from 
the  shoulder  line  to  the  dovetail  on  the  back  rail,  as  at  A, 

Fig.  31. 
The  back  rail  is  also  dovetailed  to  receive  the  upright 

bar.  If  the  reader  will  look  at  Fig.  24  and  imagine  the 
upright  placed  into  position  on  the  back  rail,  he  will  no- 
tice that  D  D  meet  and  form  the  remaining  part  of  the 


End  a/igle.  bar 


_        ..,^-A 


«    I     » 

f     <      • 


Fig.  26. 


mitre,  leaving  a  shoulder  and  mitre  to  join  the  end  angle- 
bar  when  in  position.  The  exact  position  of  the  latter  is 
seen  in  Fig.  26,  the  dotted  lines  showing  the  position  of 
the  dovetail  on  the  back  rail. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  set  out  the  work. 

Commencing  with  the  end  angle  bar,  square  oflf  a  line 
for  the  extreme  end  of  the  mitre  at  B,  Fig.  25,  and 
measure  back  the  width  of  the  back  rail   (namely  i>4 


220 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


inch)  to  C,  which  will  be  the  sight  line.    From  the  sight 
hne  set  off  5/16  inch  for  the  shoulder  of  the  dovetail  as 
at  S,  Figs.  24  and  25;  then  set  off  i^  inch  from  the 
sight-hne  to  the  end  of  the  dovetail.     Set  a  gauge  to 
the  centre  of  the  angle-bar  for  the  shoulders,  as  at  D 
F.gs.  25  and  26.     The  shoulder  at  D,  Fig.  25,  is  cut 
under  on  the  bevel  as  shown  in  the  section  through  the 
jomt  at  A,  and  in  the  sketch  of  the  end  angle-bar    Fig. 
24,  where  the  drawing  is  broken.     It  is  necessary  to 
bevel  It   m   this   way   in  order  to  obtain   the  requisite 
strength  m  the  dovetail.    The  shoulder  on  the  side.  Fig. 
26,  IS  cut  square,  as  shown  in  the  sketch.     Mark  the 
mitres,  cutting  from  the  sight-line  to  the  shoulder  line. 
The  mitre  on  the  extreme  end  is  cut  through  as  shown 
m  Fig.  25. 

To  set  out  the  back  rail  as  shown  in  Fig.  24.  square 
a  hne  for  the  extreme  end  of  the  mitre,  and  from  this 
hne  measure  back  for  the  sight-line,  namely,  9/16  inch 
the  width  of  the  angle-bar,  as  at  E,  Fig.  25.  Square  a 
line  between  the  two  lines  obtained,  at  an  equal  distance 
from  each  for  the  shoulder  D.  From  E  measure  7/16 
inch  toward  the  end  of  the  bar,  and  cut  off  square  to 
within  yi  inch  of  the  outside  edge;  this  is  clearly  shown 
in  Fig.  24. 

To  mark  the  dovetail  of  the  end  angle-bar,  make  a 
thin  hardwood  or  zinc  pattern  to  fit  the  dovetail  on  the 
angle-bar  and  apply  it  to  the  rebate  of  the  back  rail 
cutting  the  dovetail  out  very  carefully  to  within  14  inch 
of  the  outside  edge.  On  the  top  side  of  the  rail  mark 
the  external  mitre  from  the  extreme  point  to  the  shoul- 
der-line, and  cut  as  shown  in  Figs.  24  and  25.  Before 
the  mitre  can  be  completed,  the  bevel  must  be  cut  along 
the  shoulder-line  and  edge  of  dovetail,  and  must  work 


CASF  MAKING 


221 


out  against  the  mitre.      The  internal  mitre  is  cut  from 
the  sight-Hne. 

There  now  only  remains  the  cutting  of  the  dovetail 
to  receive  the  upright  bar.  Referring  to  Fig.  24,  it  will 
be  seen  that  it  is  necessary  to  obtain  the  shoulder-line 
only,  which  is  accomplished  by  measuring  from  the  ex- 
treme point  of  the  mitre,  D,  Fig.  24,  }i  inch,  the  thick- 
ness of  the  upright  bar.  The  position  of  the  dovetail- 
joint  between  the  back  rail  and  the  back  upright  bar  is 
shown  by  the  dotted  line  in  I'ig.  26. 

Exact  lines  for  setting  out  the  back  upright  bar,  Fig, 
26,  are  found  as  follows:  .Square  the  shoulder-line  D 
and  set  off  for  the  back  shoulder  '4  inch  as  shown  by 
the  dotted  line  G.  The  back  shoulder  is  then  cut  off  to 
within  /»  inch  of  the  face,  as  in  the  sketch,  Fig.  24. 
Make  a  pattern  to  fit  the  dovetail  on  tlie  back  rail,  and 
apply  it  to  the  back  of  the  bar.  Mitre  the  /t  inch  pro- 
jection on  the  outside  edge,  and  also  mitre  the  inside  as 
shown. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  whole  of  this  work 
should  be  executed  very  carefully  and  very  neatly.  When 
the  above  mentioned  joints  have  been  fitted,  make  the 
bars  to  the  required  length. 

To  set  out  the  bottom  end  of  the  back  upright 
bar,  cut  the  face  shoulder  square  and  mitre  with  the 
moulding  as  previously  described  for  the  front  angle-bar. 
Allow  the  back-shoulder  to  be  ^4  inch  longer,  so  as  to 
fit  the  rebate  for  the  doors,  the  tenon  being  in  the  po- 
sition shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  17. 

After  all  the  joints  have  been  made,  round  the  angle- 
bars  and  the  back  rail.  The  external  angles  of  all 
upriglit  angle-bars  must  have  the  rounding  turned  out 
about  1/2  inch  above  the  bottom  shoulder,  leaving  the 


,  *;. 


222 


MODKRN  CARPENTRY 


bottom  part  of  the  bar  square  to  follow  the  line  of  the 
ZeZff.  ^"""^  ""  "°"  '^  «'"^^  ^"^''^■^her  ^ 

The   double-rebatcd   upright   bar   between   the  doors, 
as  at  II  Fig.  19,  ,s  cut  to  give  Ixith  the  top  and  bottom 
rebate,  a  s.uall  dovetail  being  cut  at  f.,th  ends  T  t  e 
positions  shown  by  the  d.-..|  hues.     Tlie  front  edge  of 
he     ar  ,s  s  ightly  rounded  to  break   the  joint  betwe 
he  doors      Lrom  the  inside  of  the  bar  a  ninner  of  the 
ame  thickness  as  the  bar  is  screwed  to  the  bottom  o^ 
the  case  to  keep  the  trays  in  position. 
Doors      There  is  nothing  special  to  note  in   framine 

together.     The  panel  is  prepared  flush  on  the  inside 

Carefully  fit  the  doors  to  the  opening  and  work  the 
hook-joint  on  the  top  edge  and  both  ends.  Tit 
remembered  that  the  hook-joint  must  be  worked  through 
on  each  end;  and  also  that  it  is  deeper  than  the  hook- 
it' o  "  .1  !7  ""•  '"  "°^^'"^'  ^he  small  hollow  to 
fit  over  the  hllct  on  the  bottom  edge,  work  the  plane 
from  the  back  side  of  the  door. 

Hinge  the  doors  on  the  bottom  edge,  fixing  the  butts 
against  the  outside  edge  of  the  half-round  filtt.  V'hen 
fixed  thus  the  airtight  joint  will  remain  intact.  T»^e 
doors  are  fastened  by  a  spring  catcii  or  lock  let  into 
the  top  rail.. 

'  Ilet  can  be  marked  by  lining  down  the  back  of  the 
doors  round  the  frame.  The  fillets  should  be  fixed  i/,2 
of  an  inch  inside  the  lines  to  allow  for  clearing. 

./T'  v"^  "'''''  '''*'''^"  °^  '^^  ^'^y  '^  shown  in  Fig 
T».  I  ne  bottom  is  prepared  for  three  pieces  of  U-inch 
pine.    The  grain  of  the  centre  piece  runs  from  back  to 


CASE  MAKING 


2ii 


front  of  the  case,  the  grain  of  the  side  pieces  beinj;  at 
right  angles  to  it,  ami  the  three  pieces  are  tongueil  and 
grooved  together  as  shown.  Glue  the  pieces  together, 
and,  when  set,  mitre  the  bead  round  the  bottom. 

Another  method  of  ensuring  the  l)<)tt()in  against  warp- 
ing is  to  have  the  bottom  in  three  thicknesses,  the  grain 
of  the  centre  lying  across  the  two  outside  pieces,  and  the 
pieces  being  glued  together. 

The  inside  of  the  tray  and  over  the  bead  are  covered 
with  velvet  or  some  other  material,  which  must  be  glue<l 
to  the  tray.  Glue  should  be  used  sparingly  so  as  to 
prevent  it  penetrating  the  material. 


CIRCULAR-FRO.NTKl)  COU.VTER-CASE   WITH   CL.\SS  ENDS. 

Fig.  28  shows  a  cross  section  through  a  circular- 
fronted  case  with  glass  ends.  The  only  difference  in 
the  construction  of  this  case  from  that  of  the  square 
case  is  the  bent  angle-bar,  and,  of  course,  the  omission 
of  the  front  angle-bar. 

In  making  this  case  it  is  first  necessary  to  have  the 
glass  bent  to  the  shape  required.  For  this  purpose  a 
pattern  of  the  curve  should  be  sent  to  a  glass  manufac- 
turer. When  the  glass  has  been  received  make  a  mould 
of  the  same  shape,  on  which  to  bend  the  angle-bar.  as 
shown  in  Fig.  29.  The  convex  side  of  the  glass  will 
give  the  rebate  line  from  which  to  work  the  mould. 

Use  birch  for  the  angle-bar,  as  it  bends  easily;  it  can 
be  stained  to  match  the  other  part  of  the  case.  Have 
the  bar  Ion-  enough  to  bend  from  the  bottom  of  the  case 
to  the  back  rail. 

To  bend  the  bar  successfully,  cut  the  top  side  of  the 
bar  away  down  to  the  rebate  line  on  the  end   required 


ia4 


MODKRN  C ARPKNTRY 


to  be  Ixnt.  The  kualh  of  tlic  part  cut  away  will  be 
from  the  Ixittom  o{  the  case  to  a  little  heyond  the  spiiii};- 
ing  line.     Care  imist  Ik  taken  t».  cut  the  two  bars  for 


ti-.e  case  in  pairs.  Steam  the  bars  for  several  hours  and 
t!:en  bend  them  round  the  mould  (Fig.  29)  by  securing 
the  extreme  end  first  with  a  cleat,  as  shown  at  A.    Draw 


CASE  MAKINCl 


^i 


226 


MODERxM  CARPENTRY 


the  bar  gradually  to  the  mould,  secure  it  in  position  by 
the  cleat  B,  and  leave  it  to  cool  for  several  hours.  It  is 
better  to  leave  it  on  the  mould  until  the  following  day, 
when  the  strip  to  form  the  rebate — which  replaces  the 
part  cut  away — can  be  fitted  and  glued  in  position. 

After  the  bar  has  been  bent  and  the  strip  cleaned 
off,  place  it  on  the  drawing-board  and  set  out  the  posi- 
tion of  the  joints  at  the  bottom  of  the  case  and  on  the 
back  rail,  as  already  described. 

CIRCULAR-FRONTED  CASE  WITH  SOLID  ENDS. 

It  will  only  be  necessary,  after  the  preceding  explana- 
tions, to  notice  the  joint  of  the  back  rail,  and  the  section 


Ij! 


CiLoLJi 


rig.  30. 

of  the  solid  end.  Fig.  30  shows  a  section  through  the 
solid  end  of  the  case,  grooved  to  receive  the  glass.  Fig.  31 
is  a  plan  of  the  angle  formed  by  the  end  of  the  case  and 
the  back  rail.  The  clamp  A  is  tongued  and  grooved 
to  the  end,  the  tongue  being  stopped  ><  inch  below  the 
top  edge.  The  clamp  is  prepared  with  a  hook-joint  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  The  width  of  the  clamp  is 
the  width  of  the  back  rail  less  the  rebate  for  the  glass. 


CASE  MAKING 


2^7 


Fig.  32  shows  in  isometrical  projection  the  joint  at 
the  junction  of  the  back  rail  with  the  soHd  end.    Imagine 
_ 7 


Back  Aa.vL 


i 


V 


z' 


Fig.  31. 


that  A  A  are  brought  together.     It  will  then  be  seen 
that  they  slide  into  position  and  present  the  appearance 


^28 


MODERN  CARPfiNtRY 


shown  in  the  plan  in  Fig  31,  and  give  the  extra  lines 
for  setting  work. 

The  solid  ends  are  y^  inch  thick,  finished  size.  They 
must  be  left  wide  enough  to  screw  to  the  bottom  frame 
of  the  case.  Fix  the  moulding  round  the  bottom  and 
mitre  it  at  each  inside  round  of  the  ends,  as  before 
described  for  upright  angle-bars,  turning  the  rpund  on 


Fig.  33. 

the  outside  of  each  end  out  3^  inch  above  the  moulding. 
The  moulding  mitred  round  the  ends  of  the  case  must 
be  reduced  by  the  thickness  of  the  quarter-round  mem- 
ber which  forms  the  rebate  for  glass  at  the  front  of  the 
case. 

These  cases  are  often    fitted   with   several   trays,   the 
bearers  to  carry  them  being  screwed  to  the  ends. 


. 


SOME  FORMS  OF  PANELS. 

We  conclude  this  Volume  by  giving  some  illustrations 
of  panels.  In  Fig.  i  we  give  a  "flush"  panel  for  a  front 
or  entrance  door,  in  which  in  front  elevation  a,  b,  are 
the  two  rails,  d  d,  e  e,  the  stiles,  c  c,  g  g,  the  panel  with 


Fig.  1. 

stuck-on  mouldings  all  round  and  mitring  at  corners; 
g  h  is  a 'vertical  section  in  line  3  4.  In  this  the  recess 
between  the  stile  and  panel  is  one  side  only.  Where 
there  are  recesses  on  both  sides  of  the  panel  b  b,  Fig. 
2,  and  the  stiles  a  a,  the  panel  is  known  as  a  "square" 
panel.  In  this  figure  the  lower  diagram  is  front  ele- 
vation;  that  on  the  left  is  a  section  on  line  3  4.  In 
Fig.  3  we  illustrate  difterent  forms  of  panels.  In  the 
upper  diagram,  a  a,  the  stiles  carry  one  "square  panel," 

229 


. 


■m  AyV-.'k' 


230 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


.1 


Fig.  2. 


WW:'' 


:,>^ 


Fig.  3. 


PANELS 


231 


whicli  is  not  flat,  as  in  Fig.  2,  on  the   inner  side,  but 
tapers   to   the   centre,   which   is   thickest,   to   the   sides, 


Fig.  4. 


w 


where  it  may  be  either  square,  as  at   the  right  hand, 
or  finished  with  a  moulding,  as  on  the  left. 

Resuming  our  description  of  the  drawing  named,  the 
second  diagram  shows  a  "flush  panel,"  with  stiles  d  d, 


Fig.  5. 

tlie   panel    having   a    raised   position    in    the    centre,    as 
shown  at  a  b,  with  flat  spaces  as  at  c  c,  ail  round.    The 


) 


I  !•■ 


I    . 


a33 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


lower  diagram  to  the  riglit  is  an  enlarged  view  in  scc- 
t.on  and  elevation  of  the  part  of  the  panel  of  upper 
diagram  to  the  right.  Tiie  lower  diagram  to  the  left 
IS  an  enlarged  view  of  the  left  hand  side  of  the  panel 
wh.ch  IS  technically  called  a  "raised  panel."  Figs  12 
and  13  are  other  views  of  raised  panels,  and  diagram 


Fig.  & 


ill 


B  in  next  figure  shows  a  form  of  panel  in  the  Gothic. 
Other  forms  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  8,  9,  10,  and  11. 
m  Fig.  3  the  flat  part  of  the  panel  surroundin-  the 
raised  central  part  is  called  the  "margin."  (^ce  also 
•WnlH^''  ^-^  The  panel,  as  in  Fig. .  3,  is  ;alled  a 
moulded  raised  panel"  when  there  is  a  moulding  at 


PANELS 


233 


the  margin,  as  f  e  h.  There  are  other  distinctions  in 
panel  work,  yet  to  be  noticed.  In  "flush  panels,''  as 
in  Fig.  I,  the  "moulding"  or  "bead"  is  worked  only  on 
the  two  sides  (vertical)  of  the  panel,  as  at  d  d,  Fig.  5, 
and  these  terminate  at  the  rails,  as  at  f  f,  no  moulding 
being  at  the  ends  of  the  panel.  This  is  called  "bead 
butt"  panel.     When  the  panel  has  mouldings  all  round, 


Fig.  7. 

that  is  at  top  and  bottom  as  well  as  at  the  sides,  the 
mouldings  meet  at  the  corners  and  are  mitred,  as  shown 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  diagram  in  Fig.  6,  this  is 
known  as  a  "bead  flush  panel."  In  panel  work  where 
a  moulding  is  worked  out  of  the  solid,  ?s  at  b  in  Fig. 
4,  or  at  a  a  in  Fig.  5  of  the  style,  as  c  c  or  b  b,  the 
term  "stuck  on"   (a  corruption  of  "struck  on,"  which 


234 


MODERN  CARrEXTRY 


IS  the  true  term)  is  api.Iic<l.  This  is  only  applicable  to 
''bead  and  Initt"  panel  work  vertically,  as  the  mould- 
ings would  not  mitre  if  struck  horizontallv  on  the  rails. 


When  the  mouldings  arc  made    separately    and    nailed 

onto  the  stiles  j  j.  and  rails  i  i,  Fig.  6,  they  are  called 

laid  on     mouldings.     They  may  be  nailed  on  either  to 


PANELS 


^^//jy///^/y///y///M'/yyy/'/^^^^ 


235 


"=s 


\\ 


Fig.  10 


•!.*■•;  J, 


Ai  ^*^A.- 


336 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


^^^^^^^^3^^^W^^. 


n 


PANELS 


m 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


Hn 

IH 

lyZifi^H^ 

'  'M^Cl- 

, :  ;^«| 

(ii|  f 

1  ^^'H 

I'Hyl 

^  ^^^H^ 

i'  ^^^^^K 

^^^^^^^F 

^ffi 

'^^^^^B' '  Hp  ' 

f  .M-    1^ 


wm 


238 


MODERN  CARPRNTRY 


the  s  „es  an.  ra.ls  or  to  ,he  panels  in  "flusir  work 
or  U  around  th.  panels  in  -Miuare-  panels.  I„  S' 
14  .n  cLagram  A.   we  give  a  panel   at   upper  part  of 


Fig.  15. 

door   in  which  the  upper  rail  a  a  is  curved  at  top   b  b  b 
e  st,les.  separated  in  the  centre  by  a  mouldinra  a  J 
the  upper  panel,  with  stuck-on  mouldings  c  e  e      Dia 
gram  B  ,s  front  elevation  of  lower  panel.     In  Fig     3 


PANELS 


43^ 


we  jjivc  a  section  of  midtllc  stile  and  panel ;  the  middle 
stile  b  b  iK'injj  provitled  down  the  centre  with  a  stuck- 
on  niouldinjj.  as  at  b  a,  corresponding  to  the  vertical 
moulding  a  a  in  Fig.  15.  A  mouMiiig  as  at  c  c  is  worked 
in  the  margin  of  tlie  stile  corresponding  to  c  c  in  Fig. 

14.  E  shows  the  moulding  in  section  stuck  on  the  square 
panel  f  g,  the  margin  f  being  in  this  way  wide.     In  Fig. 

15.  and  in  Figs.  8,  9.  10.  11  and  i.J  ne  give  illustrations 
of  panel  work,  and  in  I-'ig.  <j  scctiui'  and  elevation  of 
mouldings  for  a  panel. 


It'll 

-  t      I 

'  i'     I 


f 


JOINERS'  WORK  IN  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF 
DOORS-DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  DOORS. 

We  now  come  to  illustrate  the  diflFerent  forms  of 
doors,  and  various  details  of  their  construction.  Doors 
are  cither  external  or  internal  and  both  may  be  con- 


Fig.  16 


structed  much  m  the  same  way.  The  chief  difference 
between  them,  if  difference  may  be  made  at  all,  is  that 
external  doors  are  heavier    in    their    tinibers-that    is, 

240 


. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  DOORS 


HI 


thicker  and  broader — and  are  not  quite  so  much  orna- 
mented with  mouldings,  or  so  highly  and  carefully  fin- 
ished, as  internal  or  private  room  doors.  Doors  are  of 
different  classes,  beginning  with  those  adapted  either  for 
houses,  of  a  simple  character  or  for  out-buildings,  etc., 
where  economy  is  carefully  studied,  and  going  up  to  the 
more  elaborate  forms,  used  in  houses  of  the  higher  class. 
The  simplest  form  of  doors  is  shown  in  part  elevation 
at  A,  Fig.  i6,  in  plan  at  B,  looking  down  in  direction  of 
arrow  I,  in  C  side  elevation  or  edge  view  looking  in 
direction  of  arrow  2.  This  form  is  what  is  called  a 
"batten  door."  In  elevation  in  diagram  A,  the  lower 
part  is  a  a,  next  to  floor  or  ground  line  b  b.  The  door 
is  made  up  of  flat  planks,  a  a  c  d  d,  running  vertically 
from  foot  or  floor,  or  ground  line  b  b  up  to  head.  These 
are  either  laid  as  in  plan  B  in  the  cheapest  class  of  work, 
edge  to  edge,  and  held  together  by  cross  pieces,  or  bars, 
e  e.  In  better  work,  these  and  the  vertical  parts,  d  d, 
are  secured  by  joints  of  different  kinds.  In  the  section 
C  the  cross  bars  e  are  simply  laid  flat  and  nailed  to  the 
upright  planks,  d  d.  The  edges  of  the  cross-bars,  d  d, 
may  either  be  left  square,  or  have  the  lines  or  corners 
planed  off  and  "chamfered"  or  beveled  off  as  at  f  f. 


BATTEN  AND  BRACED  AND  BATTEN,  BRACED 
AND  FRAiMED  DOOR. 

Fig.  17  is  an  elevation  in  diagram  A  of  a  "batten  and 
braced"  door.  To  the  vertical  and  cross  bars  of  the 
simple  form  in  Fig.   16  the  diagonal  "brace"  a  a  a  a, 


gFMMg 


¥mMWm 


Fig.  17. 

corresponding  to  the  struts  of  a  roof  truss,  are  in- 
troduced; these  butt  against  the  cross  bars  or  battens 
b  b  b  b,  while  behind  are  the  vertical  boards  c  c  c  c 

242 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  DOORS 


243 


Diagram  B  is  side  elevation  or  edge  view  and  C  vertical 
section.     A  still  higher  class  of  door  is  the  "framed 


i    .        I       1      '      • 


•     I 


•  1     .  '    i>    T    '     ' 

•  :    '  '    >ig     '■    '     ' 


Fig.  18. 


braced  and  battened"  door,  in  Fig.   18,  here  as  in  ele- 
vation in  diagre  n  A,  we  have  an  outer  frame  vertical 


244 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


pieces  held  together  and  secured  by  the  cross-bars 
b,  c,  d  the  ends  of  these  being  tenoned  into  the  stiles 
a  a.  The  central  spaces  are  filled  with  braces  e  e,  and 
the  vert,cal  boards  f  f.  Diagram  B  is  vertical  section 
on  hne  2  and  C  is  side  view  showing  ends  of  tenons  of 
cross  bars  b.  c,  d;  D  is  plan  of  top  edge,  looking  down; 
ii  is  cross  or  horizontal  section  on  line  3  4  in  A. 


PA>^ELLED  DOORS— NAMES  AND  OFFICES  OF 
DIFFERENT  PARTS— STILES— RAILS- 
MORTISES. 

The  transition  from  this  form  of  door  to  the  highest 
class,  the  "panelled  door,"  is  easy. and  natural.    We  have 


Fig.  19. 

seen  in  the  simplest  timbers,  which  is  the  element  of  the 
'truss,"  and  which  gives  the  strongest  form  attainable. 

245 


:]  t] 
1   I 


J 


246 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


In  this  view  the  panelled  door,  as  in  elevation  in  A 
Fig.  19,  IS  not  so  strong  as  the  form  in  Fig.  18  fiom 
the  absence  of  the  diagonal  braces,  as  e  e,  but  those  if 
required  in  a  door  such  as  an  external  one,  where 
strength  is  an  object  can  be  dispensed  with  in  interior 
doors,  which  are  always  panelled  in  good  houses. 

Elegance  or  neatness  of  arrangement,  with  such  or- 
namentation as  mouldings,  etc.,  can  give,  are  what  are 
looked  for.  In  Fig.  19,  the  external  framework  enclos- 
ing the  panels  is  made  up  of  two  side  vertical  boards, 
a  a,  b  b  varying  in  thickness  from  ij^  to  21^  inches' 
and  in  very  superior  work  even  3  inches.  These  boards 
are  called  "stiles";  that  by  which  door  is  hung  to  the 
casing,  secured  by  hinges  is  called  the  "hanging  stile," 
as  a  a ;  thai  to  which  the  lock  is  secured  the  "lock  stile" 

^'„^  u    .7!'^'^  '^''^'  ^'^  ^'^^^  together  by  cross-bars 
called     rails    of  which  c  is  the  "bottom  rail,"  d  the  "top 
rail"  and  e  the  "middle  or  lock  rail."    The  central  ver- 
tical bars,  as  f  f  are  called  "muntins"  (a  corruption  of 
mouldings).     The  assemblage  of  boards  thus  arranged 
leaves  spaces  as  g,  h.  i,  j,  these  are  filled  with  panels 
as  a,  b,  c  and  d,  in  Fig.  20,  which  is  the  elevation  of  a 
/o«r-panelled  door.     There  are  also  six-panelled  doors 
Generally  the  panels  are  nearly  equal  in  length    but  in 
some  the  lower  panels  are  short,  the  upper  being  longer 
Figs.  2  and  4  illustrate  outside  doors  in  Continental  style 
The  panels  are  secured  to  the  framing  by  grooves,'  as 
shown    in    preceding    figures    and    as    further    hereafter 
illustrated,  and  are  ornamented  with  mouldings    as  ex- 
plained.    In  Fig.  19  diagram  C  is  the  vertical' section 
edge  view  of  style  b  b.     In  Fig.  20  B  is  plan  of  top 
edge  of  door.    The  rails  arc  secured  to  the  styles  by  ten- 
ons, sometimes  single,  but  more  frequently  in'good  work 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  DOORS 


247 


by  double  tenons,  as  in  Fig.  21,  in  which  is  front  elevation 
of  rail,  a  a,  b  c  two  tenons.  Diagram  B  is  part  of  stile 
a  cut  vertically  in  two  to  show  the  seats  of  the  mortises 
b  and  c,  diagram  C  and  view  of  rail.     In  left-hand  dia- 


'  c  , [_£j 


3 

Fig.  20. 


gram  in  Fig.  12  is  elevation  of  part  of  "lock  stile,"  a  a 
and  "lock  rail,"  b  of  a  bedroom  door,  with  simple  lock, 
c,  known  as  a  "rim  lock."  In  diagram  B,  part  of  the 
"hanging  stile,"  a  a,  of  this  door  is  given  in  elevation,  b 


248 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


part  of    top  rail,"  a  portion  of  upper  "hinge"  is  shown 

at  c.     Dmgram  C  is  edge  view.     The  inne-  edges  of 

stdes,  rails    and  mortises  are  generally,  in  good  work, 

stop  chamfered  '  as  at  d  d.  or  beveled  off  from  end  to 

shown     The  "top  chamfer,"  d  d.  is  the  neatest,  stopping, 
as  .t  does,  short  of  the  end.     A  rim  lock  is  screwed 
onto  the  outs.de  of  the  lock  stile;  what   is*  called   a 
mort.se  lock    .s  employed  in  superior  doors,  where  the 
lock  IS  concealed,  nothing  but  the  handle  and  keyhole 
be.ng  v.s.ble,  the  lock  being  inserted  in  a  mortise  or 
vacant  part  cut  out  in  the  stile  to  receive  it.     Fig   20 
contrasts  the  two  locks,     c  d  is  the  rim  lock.     In  the 
mort.       --1,  nothing  but  the  handle  at  g  is  seen,  and  the 
escutcheon  h,  i  is  the  bolt  of  the  lock,  a  a,  b  b.  a'  a'. 
D  D ,  are  the  chamfered  stiles  and  rails. 


DOOR  CASINGS. 


Doors  are  secured  to  "casings."  These  are  of  tim 
ber,  and  built  into  the  walls,  and  are  secured  to  wood, 
bricks  or  grounds.  Fig.  23  illustrates  in  part  elevation 
an  outer  "door  casing."  The  sides  b  b,  c  c,  are  called 
"jambs,"  £  £,  the  "head,"  into  which  the  jambs  are  ten- 
oned, the  feet  being  also  tenoned,  at  d,  into  the  -upper 
part  of  stone  step  a  a.  Fig.  22  is  sectional  plan  show- 
ing arrangement  and  relative  positions  of  various  parts 
of  a  door  and  its  casings.  Th^  door,  1  1,  is  hinged  to 
the  "jamb"  b,  this  being  secured  to  the  "ground"  or 
"wood  brick"  a  a,  bulit  into  the  wall  b  b,  c  and  j  are 
the  "architraves."  The  opposite  "jamb,"  f  f,  is  rebated 
as  at  m  to  allow  of  a  space  into  which  the  "door  lock 
stile"  falls,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  which  repre* 
sent  the  lines  of  the  door.  The  outer  edge  of  the  jamb 
may  be  left  plain,  but  is  often  finished  off  with  a  "quirked 
head,"  as  at  j ;  k,  k,  the  hinge.  The  inner  and  outer 
architraves  are  at  c  and  j ;  a  a,  the  wood  brick ;  b  b,  the 
wall;  e,  i,  are  the  elevations  of  the  architraves,  d  and  h. 
The  elevations  of  these  two  parts  of  sectional  plan  of 
door  fittings  are  given  in  the  under  part  of  the  drawing 
in  Fig.  23.  The  edge  of  the  door  a,  as  looking  at  it 
from  the  inner  side,  is  shown  at  p  p,  q  q,  being  the 
ends  of  tenons  of  top  rail,  r  r,  the  hinge,  n  n,  from  a  view 
of  architrave,  o  o  the  wall  in  the  void  of  which  the  door 
is  hung.  In  the  under  drawing  to  the  right,  part  of 
front  surface  of  door  is  shown,  s  s,  the  architrave,  t  t 
the  wall. 

249 


i  ¥ 


m 


250 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


Fig.  22. 


I'ls.  23. 


JOINTS  OF  STILES  AND  RAILS  IN  PANELLED 

DOORS. 

Figs.  24  and  25  give  illustrations  of  methods  of  join- 
ing rails  and  stiles,  or  rails  and  mortises.  Let  abed, 
Fig.  24,  be  the  stile,  with  moulding  stuck  on  edge ;  f  g  h 
is  part  of  the  rail,  with  tenon  f,  shown  by  dotted  lines 


II 


Fig.  24. 

in  stile  abed.  Fr  ".t  view  of  tcnun  arc  face  of  mitre 
of  chamfer  at  p,  looking  at  a  b  c  d  in  the  direction  of 
arrow  1,  is  shown  in  the  lower  diagram  at  k',  p'  and  e". 
The  section  of  part  f  g  lookitig  at  its  end,  in  direction  of 
arrow  2,  is  shown  at  1  m  n;  the  section  of  a  moulding 

251 


v.i 


252 


MODERN  t  ARPENTRY 


i*  in  this  at  e'.     In  I  wer  (huKram  to  the  right  is  given 
a  view  of  under  sice  of  rail  f  g.     I„  Fig.  25,  a  a.  is 


Fig.  2r> 

hont  vi:-.v  of  pan   .,f  stiie  w    h        aiding  worked  on 
edge,  at  b  b;  part  oi  rail  i.  at  c      '  d.     The  angular 


STILES  AND  RAILS 


353 


face  ot  part  cut  out  in  stilc  c  f.  fg  corresponds  with 
angular  end  h  i  j  jf  rail,  but  a  tenon  i  1  k  is  left  on,  or 
is  inserted  in  end  of  piece  c'  c'  d.  The  end  view  of  the 
stile  a  a.  looking  at  it  in  the  Jirectioji  opposite  to  that 


Fig.  2«. 

of  the  arrc  V  3,  is  hown  in  tiic  :  !dle  diagram  to  the 
right  with  cofrcs;  '""R  letters  a'  •  nted,  showing^  cor- 
rcsponc.  ijT^  parts,  'l  ,w  line  i"  i"  tirresponds  to  tae  line 
at  point  in  r;  1  c'  c'  d  ''  The  plan  of  under  side  «>f  rail 
c'  c'  d  is  sh(i  n  in  dia  an  immediately  bel  k',  '  be- 
ing edge  view  .f  enoi  1.  The  finished  joint  i'i  shown 
at  o  o,  p  1  :  t       (liatjra  a  below  to  the  left  1  <'ing  cross 


Fig.  27 

5ecf:^n  *)ie  line  I  2.  Eiilar-,t.il  elevation  q,  and  sec- 
tion '.  kling  b  1).  or  b",  is  given  at  the  two  i."i- 
gra  the  right  at  bottom  of  drawing.  Another 
metho-!  forming  the  junction  is  shown  in  the  middle 
diagram  a  the  not  of  Im-T.  25.  the  shaded  part  sli.  wing 
form  i'i  tenon  with  the  ends  of    uoulding  united. 


I    i 


i 

r 

I 

1 1 


A  FOUR-PANELLED  DOOR. 

In  Fg.  28  I  give  a  drawing— to  a  scale  of  >i,  or  i^ 
inch  to  the  foot-of  a  four-panelled  interior  or  room 


Fig.  28. 

door,  showing  all  the  leading  parts  of  the  framework, 
wit!,  the  exception  of  top  rail,  which  is  usually  about 
half  the  breadth  or  depth  of  the  middle  of  lock  rail, 
marked  b  b  in  the  drawing.    The  panels  are  not  shown,' 

254 


STILES  AND  RAILS 


255 


but  the  dimensions  of  the  spaces  they  occupy  are  given. 
The  panels  are  plan  "square,"  the  only  ornamentation  in 
this  example  being  a  "stop  chamfer"  worked  on  the  mar- 
gin of  stiles,  and  rails,  as  shown  at  g  g  and  h  h.  In  the 
drawing  a  a  is  the  "bottom  rail,"  b  b  the  middle,  or  usu- 
ally "lock  rail,"  as  it  carries  the  "mortise  lock,'  the 
handle  of  which  is  shown  at  j.  The  "key  hole"  is 
covered  by  a  movable  part,  hung  or  jointed  at  upper 
end,  called  the  "escutcheon,"  or  more  frequently  in  tech- 
nical talk,  the  "scutcheon,"  or  "skutcheon,"  shown  at  k. 
The  stiles  are  at  c  c,  e  e— the  stiles  c  c,  termed  the  "lock 
stile,"  being  that  in  which  the  lock  is  mortised.  The 
stile  e  e  is  called  the  "hanging  stile,"  being  that  on 
which  the  door  is  "hinged"  or  "hung"  to  the  door  casing. 
The  vertical  pieces,  or  "muntins,"  which  divide  the  pan- 
els from  each  other,  placing  them  in  pairs  on  each  side 
of  the  door,  are  shown  at  d  d.  The  door  framing  thus 
constructed  is  surrounded  on  both  sides  and  at  top  by 
the  architraves  f  f  f. 


ARCHITRAVES  OF  A  FOUR-PANELLED  DOOR. 

The  section  of  architrave  in  relation  to  the  door  cas- 
ing or  check  IS  in  upper  diagram  to  the  left  in  Fig  29 
a  a  being  part  of  the  door  casing,  b  b  the  section  of 
architrave,  of  which  part  elevation  is  shown  at  c  c,  i 
2,  3.  and  4  showing  similar  parts  in  section  correspond- 
ingly lettered.  The  edge  view  of  the  "lock  stile"  as  a  a  f  in 
the  figiire  preceding,  is  shown  at  d  d ;  e  e  shows  the  brass 
plate  let  into  the  edge  and  secured  by  screw  nails  as 
shown.     This  is  part  of  the  lock  furniture  of  the  door 
f  indicating  position  and  section  of  the  shooting  or  lock- 
ing bolt  of  the  lock,  which  passes  into  tfie  aperture  of  a 
brass  plate  secured  to  the  inner  side  or  edge  of  the  door 
casing.     The  bolt,  which  secures  the  door,  being  closed 
-not  locked-f  being  the  locking  bolt,  is  shown  at  g 
this  being  worked  by  the  handle  j  of  the  lock.    The  part 
of  the  lock  furniture  attached  to  the  door  casing  oppo- 
sue  to  the  edge,  as  d  d  d.  of  the  door  stile,  is  shown  in 
the  lower  diagram  to  the  right.     The  part  3  3  in  this 
corresponds  to  the  face  of  the  recessed  or  rebated  part  p 
in  drawing  above,  cut  in  the  face  of  the  door  casing  n  n  n 
the  door  passing  into  and  resting  against  the  face  of  re- 
cess or  rebate  p.     In  the  upper  diagram  to  the  right 
o  o  o  IS  the  outer  architrave  secured  to  the  door  casing 
n  n  n,  r  part  of  the  inner  architrave.     The  part  of  the 
lock  furniture  secured  to  the  door  casing  is  shown  at 
t  t;  It  IS  a  brass  plate  let  into  the  face  g,  or  3  3  of  recess 
or  rebate  p.     The  aperture  in  this  into  which  the  bolt  f 
of  t.tc  lock  passes  is  shown  at  p;  that  into  which  the  bolt 

256 


. 


ARCHITRAVE  OF  DOOR 


^57 


MMBtfHHi 


258 


MODERN  CARrENTRY 


moved  by  the  hand  passes  is  at  u,  a  spring  w,  cast  onto 
the  plate  t  t,  being  shown  at  w.    A  small  projecting  part 


\^^m\ 


'Jifm. 


:-=^— 


Fig.  30. 

as  w',  to  make  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  door  more 
easy.     The  two  diagrams  to  the  left  at  lower  part  of 


Fig.  31. 

drawing  show  the  ekvaiioii  k  1  m,  the  chamfered  part  of 
framing  with  section  at  k'  k'. 


Some  examples  of  ornamental  woofi- 

WORK. 
The   following  examples   are  iptroduced   in  order  to 


PLATE  1. 


give  the  workman  an  idea  of  the  shape  and  construc- 
tion of  low-cost  ornamental   wood-work.     The   figures 

259 


iuu^uBUfaii^SMBri 


■HOHliHHHil 


26o 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


"(?^^^^^^V:^ 

t^S^ 

"-■--:.•-.•-      --TT;--! 

**^Ft'V«^^^ 

naiiiac 

MItU  MKtt 

9ijr  »9T9Mt  iriH/94) 


PLATE  2. 


shown  from  No.  i  to  No.  12.  inclusive,  exhibit  a  num- 
ber of  large  boards,  chiefly  in  Gothic  style.  Plate  No.  2  is 
a  style  which  was  in  vogue  very  much  a  few  years  ago 


ARCHITRAVE  OF  DOOR 


261 


and  was  generally  known  among  carpenters  as  Ginger- 
Bread  work.    It  is  well  adapted  for  sea-side,  cottages  or 


summer  residences ;  it  consists  mostly  of  cutwork.     Nos. 
2,  5,  8  and  9  are  well  adapted   for  ordinary  cottage 


No,  14. 

work.     Nos.   13,   16  and  21  are  well  suited  for  balus- 
trades, No.  16  being  especially  adapted  for  heavy  balus- 


No.  15. 


trades  on  verandas  or  over  bay  windows.     Nos.  14,  15 
and  17  require  no  explanation,  as  they  may  be  adapted 


a6ii 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


o 


ARCHITRAVE  OF  DOOR 


;263 


to  a  thousand  different  purposes.     Nos.  l8  and  ly  make 
very   handsome   drops    for   verandas   and   other   similar 


No.  17. 

work.     No.  29  shows  a  single  drop  with  the  grain  of 
the  wood  running  vertically.    A  number  of  these  placed 


No.  18. 


together  edge  to  edge  make  l  very  nice  trimming  for 
verandas.    No.  22  shows  a  cut  bracket  which  will  often 


»i 


No.  19. 


I 


be   found  useful.     No.   23   shows   an   elaborate   railing 
suitable  for  a  veranda  or  balcony.     No.  24  exhibits  a 


■HHiaiii 


a64 


MODERN  carpentry; 


No,  31. 


No.  23. 


ARCHITRAVE  OF  DOOR 


265 


No.  28. 


No.  24. 


No.!:: 


KdMaaiMiaiB 


^  MODERN  CARPENTRY 

perforated    panel    st.itahle    for   many    places.      No     26 

forated  or  the  ornaments  may  Ik-  planted  on,  accuX,, 
to  exifrenoes.  See  Plates.  The  balance  of  tl/e  exan  t 
shown  speak  for  themselves.  They  o/Ter  a  nnmbe  l^ 
cellent  sn.r^est,ons  to  the  proj,re>sive  workman,  Tbese 
examples  u.ll  doubtless  prove  of  great  vah,c  to  the  work- 


QUESTIONS  ON  MODERN  CARPENTr.% 

VOL  I. 

The  indent  ill  ix-  expected  to  reail  carefully  these 
papers  before  dcing  any  work.  Hi-^  name  and  address 
w  '!  r>.<  '  e  to  "dc  >;iven  on  each  page.  'It  will  be  ex- 
p(,  ted  10  vrite  up  the  questions  in  a  nt  at  and  intelligent 
niai  icr,  using  his  owu  language  and  style,  representing 
the  inswer*;  in  such  a  manner  as  will  l>c  intelligible. 
Make  all  drawings  as  clear  as  possible,  and  whenever  it 
can  bo  doni  render  them  in  India  ink.  Let  each  answer 
be  orij^inal,  do  not  copy  either  from  the  instruction  pa- 
per noi  from  any  other  source.  The  p^per  u.sed  may 
1m«  of  any  kind,  provided  that  it  is  c'  .r  durable.  Do 
not  attempt  an  answer  until  you  have  .i  oroughly  grasped 
the  subject. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Give  definition  of  a  "circle." 

2.  W  hat  term  is  given  to  a  line  that  is  drawn  through 
center  to  circumf(  rence  of  a  circle? 

3.  What  term  is  given  to  a  line  drawn  from  center 
to  circumference  of  a  circle? 

4.  What  term  is  given  to  a  line  (less  than  the  diam- 
eter) thiU  cuts  the  circumference  of  a  circle  at  two 
points  ? 

5.  Give  definition  of  a  "tangent." 

6.  -Give  definition  of  a  ".segment  of  a  circle." 

7.  Give  sketch  of  a  circle  showing  the  "diameter," 
"radius,"  "chord,"  "segment"  and  "tangent." 

267 


268 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


8.  Give  sketch  and  describe  how  to  find  the  center 
of  a  circle. 

9.  Into  how  many  equal  parts  is  the  measurement 
of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  divided? 

10.  Give  the  three  terms  used  in  measurement  of 
the  circumference  of  a  circle,  and  show  how  they  are 
written. 

11.  What  is  a  quadrant  of  a  circle  ? 

12.  How  many  degrees  are  in  a  quadrant  of  a  circle? 

13.  How  many  degrees  are  in  a  semi-circle? 

14.  What  term  is  given  to  the  angle  of  a  circle  that 
is  half  of  a  right  angle? 

15.  Give  sketch  and  describe  how  three  right  angles 
may  be  formed  within  a  semi-circle. 

16.  Give  sketch  and  describe  how  a  hexagon  may 
be  formed   within  a  circle. 

17.  Give  sketch  of  a  hexagon  showing  how  an  equi- 
lateral triangle  may  be  formed. 

18.  Give  sketch  and  describe  how  a  right  angle  or 
quadrant  may  be  bisected. 

19.  Give  sketch  and  describe  how  to  get  a  straight 
line  that  shall  equal  the  circumference  of  a  circle  or  part 
of  a  circle  or  quadrant. 

20.  Give  sketch  and  show  how  quadrant  may  be  di- 
vided into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  say  thirteen. 

21.  Give  sketch  and  show  how  equilateral  triangle 
may  be  employed  in  forming  the  trefoil. 

22.  Give  sketch  and  describe  method  of  finding  the 
"stretch  out"  or  length  of  circumference  of  a  circle. 

23.  Give  rule  by  arithmetic  of  how  to  finu  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  circle. 

24.  Give   sketch  and  describe  how  a  curve  having 


QUESTIONS 


269 


any  reasonable  radius,  n :ay  be  obtained,  if  but  three 
points  in  the  circumference  are  available. 

25.  Give  a  practical  illustration  of  how  to  find  a  place 
to  locate  a  center,  where  the  diameter  is  great. 

26.  What  is  a  "polygon?" 

27  Give  the  names  applied  to  polygons  havmg  three 
sides,  four  sides,  five  sides,  six  sides,  seven  sides,  eight 
sides,  nine  sides,  ten  si.le,  eleven  sides,  and  twelve 
sides  respectively. 

28.  Give  the  two  names  under  which  polygons  are 

classified. 

29.  Give  sketch  showing  how  a  trigon  may  be  con- 
structed and  how  the  miter  joint  may  be  obtained. 

30.  Give  sketch  and  describe  how  a  square  may  be 

formed. 

31.  Give  sketch  and    describe    how    to   construct   a 

pentagon. 

32.  Give  skach  and  describe  how  a  hexagon  may 

be  fonned. 

33.  Give  sketch  and  describe  how  a  heptagon  may 

be  formed. 

34.  Give  sketch  and  describe  how  an  octagon  may 

be  formed. 

35.  Show  practically  how  all  regular  octagons  may 

be  constructed. 

36.  Give  a  practical  illustration  of  how  a  perpendicu- 
lar line  may  be  made  on  any  given  straight  line. 

37.  Give  a  practical  illustration  of  how  to  bisect  an 
angle  bv  the  aid  of  the  steel  square  alone. 

38.  Give  a  practical  illustration  of  how  to  bisect  an 
acute  angle  by  same  method— steel  square. 

39.  Show  practically  how  to  get  a  correct  miter  cut, 
or  angle  of  45°  on  a  board. 


270 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


40.     Show  how  to  construct    a    ^i^ure    showing  an 
angje^of  30"  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  an  angle 

Show  how  the  diameter  of  a  circle  may  be  ob- 


41. 


tained  through  the  aid  of  the  steel  square. 

42.  Show  how  an  equilateral  triangle  may  be  ob- 
tamed  through  use  of  the  steel  square. 

43-  Show  how  to  describe  an  octagon  I;  using  the 
steel  square.  &      ^ 

44.  Show  how  a  near  approximation  of  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  may  be  obtained  bv  use  of  the  ^teel 
square  and  a  straight  line. 

45-  Give  illustration  how  a  board  mav  be  divided  into 
any  g,ven  number  of  equal  parts  by  aid  of  steel  square 
or  pocket  rule.  4  «  ^ 

46.     Give  the  definition  of  an  "ellipse." 
47-     Give  an  illustration  of  one  of  the  simplest  meth- 
ods of  describing  an  ellipse. 

48.     Give  an   illustration  of  projecting  an  ellipse  by 
usmg  a  trammel.  f      "> 

49-     Give  illustration  of  describing  an  ellipse  by  the 
mterscction  of  lines.  ^ 

50.  Give  illustration  of  describing  an  ellipse  by  the 
mtersection  of  arcs.  ^ 

51.  Show  how  radial  lines  may  be  obtained  for  arches 
and  elliptical  work. 

52.  Give  an  illustration  how  to  describe  a  diamond 
or  lozenge-shaped  figure. 

53-  Give  illustration  how  to  describe  a  spiral  or 
scroll  by  a  simple  method. 

54-  Give  illustration  of  how  a  spiral  may  be  described 
in  a  scientific  manner,  and  which  can  be  formed  to  di- 
mension. 


QUESTIONS 


271 


55.  Give  illustration  of  the  method  of  obtaining  a 

spiral  by  arcs  of  circles.  ,     ,     ,  ,        .       ,  ..^^^ 

56.  Give  illustration  and  method  of  formmg  a     par- 

*^57^'    Give  illustration  and  method  of  forming  an  "hy- 

^^58?^^Give  the  names  of  the  diflferent  kinds  of  arches 

in  buildings.  . 

CO      Mention  the  names  given  to  pomted  arches. 

6o'     What  is  the  name  given  to  the  stones  formmg 

an  arch? 

61.     What  is  the  name  given  to  the  centre  stone  m 

Jin  3.rc  ri  • 

62  Give  the  names  applied  to  the  various  divisions 
of  an  arch,  namely,  the  highest  point,  the  lowest  point, 
and  the  spaces  between  respectively. 

63.  What  is  the  name  given  to  the  under  or  concave 

surface  of  an  arch  ? 

64.  What  is  the  name  given  to  the  upper  or  convex 

surface  of  an  arch? 

65.  What  are  the  names  given  to  the  supports  of  an 

arch' 

(/y     Show  by  illustration  and  describe  how  to  obtain 
the  curves  and  radiating  lines  of  a  semi-circular  arch. 

67  Show  by  illustration  and  describe  how  to  obtain 
the  curves  and  radiating  lines  of  a  segment  arch. 

68  Show  by  illustration  and  describe  two  examples 
of  Moorish  or  Saracenic  arches,  one  of  which  is  pomted. 

60     What  is  a  "flatband"  ?  . 

70  Give    illustration    and    describe    how    to    obtain 
the  curves  and  radiating  lines  of  the  elliptic  arch. 

71  Give   illustration   and   describe  how   the   centers 
and  curves  of  an  equilateral  arch  may  be  obtained. 


272 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


72.  Give  illustration  and  describe  how  the  centers 
and  curves  of  a  lancet  arch  may  be  obtained. 

7Z.  Give  illustration  at.!  describe  how  the  center  and 
curves  of  a  low  or  drop  arch  may  be  obtained. 

74-  Give  illustration  and  describe  how  the  centers  and 
curves  of  a  Gothic  arch  with  a  still  less  height,  may  be 
obtamed. 

75-  Give  illustration  and  describe  another  four-cen- 
tered arch  of  less  height. 

76.  Give  illustration  and  describe  how  to  obtain  an 
equilateral  Ogee  arch. 

^  77-  Give  illustration  and  describe  method  of  obtain- 
ing the  Imes  for  an  Ogee  arch,  having  a  height  equal  to 
naif  the  span. 

78.  Give  some  instances  in  carpenter  work  where 
half  of  the  Ogee  curve  is  employed. 

79-  Give  a  description  of  the  steel  square  and  its 
several  divisions. 

80  Give  a  practical  illustration  of  how  a  board  or 
scantlmg  may  be  measured  by  use  of  steel  square 

81.  Give  rule  how  to  find  hyjjothenuse  of  a  rieht- 
angled  triangle.  ^ 

82  Give  an  illustration  of  how  length  of  braces  may 
be  obtamed  by  use  of  the  square. 

83.  Describe  the  use  of  the  "octagonal  scale"  on  the 
tongue  of  the  square. 

84.  Show  method  how  the  pitch  of  a  roof  may  be  ob- 
tamed by  use  of  the  square. 

85.  Show  method  to  obtain  bevels  and  lengths  of  hip 
rafters  by  use  of  the  square. 

86.  Show  method  for  finding  the  length  and  cuts  for 
cross-bndgmg. 


QUESTIONS 


273 


90. 
91. 
92. 

93- 
94. 


87.  Show  method  for  obtaining  the  "cuts"  for  octa- 
gon and  hexagon  joints. 

88.  Show  by  illustration  the  method  of  defining  the 
pitches  of  roofs,  and  giving  the  figures  on  the  square 
for  laying  ou*  I'le  rafters  for  such  pitches. 

89.  Give  a  short  description  of  what  is  known  as  bal- 
loon framing,  and  how  the  different  parts  are  con- 
structed. 

Give  illustration  and  describe  a  "hip-roof." 
Give  illustration  and  describe  a  "lean-to-roof.'' 
Give  illustration  and  describe  a  "saddle-roof."  ^ 
Give  illustration  and  describe  a  "mansard  roof." 
Give  illustration  and  describe  a   simple   hip-roof 
having  a  ridge. 

95.  Give  illustration  and  describe  an  "octagon  roof." 

96.  Give  illustration  and  describe  manner    of    con- 
struction of  a  "dome  roof." 

97.  Give  illustration  and  rules  for  construction  of  an 
octagonal  spire. 

98.  Give  a  few  illustrations  of  scarfing  timbers. 

99.  Show  a  few  examples  of  strengthening  and  trus- 
sing joints,  girders  and  timbers. 

100.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  term  "kerfing." 

101.  Give  illustration  showing  how  to  determine  the 
number  and  distances  apart  of  saw  kerfs  re(iuired  to 
bend  a  board  round  a  corner. 

102.  Give  illustration  of  how  to  make  a  "kerf"  for 
bending  round  an  ellipse. 

103.  Describe  how  to  bend  thick  stuff  around  work 
that  is  on  a  rake. 

104.  Give  illustration  and  describe  how  to  lay  out 
a  hip  rafter  for  a  veranda  having  a  curved  roof. 

105.  Give  illustration  and    describe    how    to   obtain 


274 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 


the  curve  of  a  hip  rafter,  when  the  common  rafters  hav 
an  ogee  or  concave  and  convex  shape. 

io6.     Give  illustration  and  describe  how  raking  mould- 
ings are  used  to  work  in  level  mouldings 

107.  Describe-  the  kind  of  mouldings  called  "spring 
mouldmgs.  *-     t. 

108.  Give  illustrati<.ns  showing  plan  and  elevation  of 
cluster  column  of  wood  for  4  colu.nns  and  describe  how 
constructed. 

109.  Give  illustration  of  a  hopper  and  describe  how 
to  be  constructed. 

no.  Give  illustration  and  describe  how  a  conical 
tower  roof  may  Ik-  curved. 

in.  Give  illustration  and  describe  how  to  cover  a 
dome  roof. 

112.  Give  illustration  and  describe  how  the  semi- 
circular soffit  of  a  doorway  may  be  made. 

1 13.  Describe,  how  a  circle  soffit  may  be  laid  off  into 
panels. 

114.  Give  illustration  and  describe  method  for  ob- 
tammg  correct  shape  of  a  veneer  for  a  gothic-splayed 
wmdow  or  door  head.  spiajed 

"5-  Give  illustrations  and  describe  two  methods  of 
dovetaihng  hoppers,  trays  and  other  splaved  work 

116.  Giv^  description  of  how  an  ordinarj-  straight 
flight  of  stairs  may  be  constructed.  ^ 

U7      Give  sketch  showing  part  of  a  straight  stair 
landing.        '   '^"'"^   '''°'''"^   '''"   ^'^^   ^''''^''''  *"d 

1 19-     Give  sketch  and  describe  a  stair  with  brackets 

120.     Give  sketch  showing  stair  with  two  newels  aiid 
balusters,  also  paneled  string  and  spandrel 


QUESTIONS 


275 


121.  Give  sketches  of  seven  of  the  latest  designs  for 

doors.  ^  ,     ,       r 

122.  Give  five   sketches    showing    methods  of  con- 
structing and  finishing  a  window   frame   for  weighted 

S3sll> 

123.  Give  sketches   showing  the  various  parts  of  a 
bay  window  for  a  balloon  frame. 

124.  Give  illustration  and  describe  six  examples  of 

shingling  roofs. 

125.  Show  by  sketch  how  panels  are  formed. 

126.  Describe  the  various  kinds  of  panels  named. 

127.  Make  sketch  of  a  four-panel  door. 

128.  How  are  air-tight  cases  made?     Describe  the 
method  of  making. 

129.  What  is  meant  by  the  word  "stile"? 

130.  What  is  a  rail  in  a  door?    What  is  a  muntin? 
131      What  is  a  chamfer?    Describe  one. 

132*.    Examine  examples   of   sketches   of  ornamental 
wood-work,  draw  and  describe  a  "baye-board." 
133.    Make  a  design  of  perforated  insular  panel. 


INDEX 


A 

Airtight  wall  ca.s«! 1^5 

An<rlo  bars  at  different  angles 131 

Arches,  elliptical    "^ 

Fkt... 62 

Four  centered °^ 

Iloraeshoe °* 

Lancet    64 

Lintel   63 

Ogee    66 

Segmental    61 

Architrave  of  door 263 

B 

Balloon  framing,  dosr-ription  of 173 

Balusters  and  turned  work 68 

Bay  window  frames,  sections  of 174 

Bending  blocks  Tor  splayed  heads 153 

Bevels  and  cuts  for  rnfters 83 

Bevels  f^v  hips,  jack  iv.fters  and  purlins ^'5 

Bisecting  angles  28 

Bisec  iug  angles  with  steel  square i?4 

Boxes  for  different  measures, -sizes  of 185 

Brace  rule  73 

Braces,  table  of 75 

Brick  work   ^^'^ 

277 


278 


INDEX 


Case  makmpr igg 

Centers.    (in(lin{»    20 

Circle,  the  o 

Circular  door  entrances 152 

Cisterns,  capacity  of 192 

Cluster  columns  233 

Cluster  columns,  ba.ses  and  capitals  of 133 

Cornices  oti  a  rake,  inside 132 

Cuttinp  brid;;in>r Yg 

Cutting  rakinsr  mouldings  in  miter  box 130 

Cycloidal  curves 57 


Degrees    j^ 

r)ividing  lines yg 

Door,  arehitr.ivo  of 263 

Architrave  of  a  four  pan<'led 256 


Casings 


249 


Doors,  batten  and  braced 242 

C()nstru(!tion  of   040 

Description  of j^g 

Four  paneled 254 

Joints  of  stiles  and  rails 251 

Names  of  different  parts 245 

Paneled      045 

Styles  of   Igg 

Dovetailing    jr^g 

si'»j y^y/.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.m 

Common  jgy 

I^apped .".".'.'.158 

Splayed    I59 


INDEX  819 

E 

Ellipses,  spirals  and  other  curves 41 

£niptiual  curves,  description  of 46 

Excavations 184 

F 

Flashings  for  valleys 177 

Flexible  radial  <;iiide 49 

Fraininj;  eoi-ners,  etc 91 

Sills,  etc 87 

Trianfndar 109 

a 

H 

Hopper  cuts,  liouxed 137 

Hopper  lilies,  compound 143 

Hoppers,  butt  cuts  for 136 

Corner  blocks  for 139 

Corner  blocks  for  obtuse 140 

Miter  cuts  for 135 

M  iters  for  obtiuse 142 

Miti'rs  for  square 141 

Regular    134 

J 

.lack  rafters,  lengths  of 102 

Joiner's  work  generally 167 

E 

Kerfed  stuff,  bending 119 

Kerfing  for  an  ellipse 120 

Kerfing  on  a  rake 121 

Kerfs,  laying  out 118 


MICROCOPY   RESOIUTION   TEST   CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


1.0 


I.I 


2.8 
3.2 


Ui 


116 
140 


2.5 

1.8 
1.6 


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^  yIPPLIED  IM/1GE     Inc 

^^  1653   East   Mom   Slreel 

rjS  Rochester.   Ne«  York        14639       USA 

iga  (716)   482  -  0300  -  Phone 

^=  (716)    288  -  5989  -  Fox 


280  INDEX 

L 

I 

Laying  out  curved  hips 123 

Curved  hips  and  jack  rafters 125 

Ogee  hips  and  rafters 124 

Raking  mouldings  for  circular  pediments 129 

Loads,  safe-bearing  192 

Lumber,  measurement  table 182 

Rule   71 

M 

Masonry 185 

Materials  for  roofs,  weight  of 189 

Strength  of  182 

Miscellaneous  illustrations   172 

Mitering  circular  and  straight  mouldings 122 

Circular  mouldings  121 

Curved  mouldings  in  panels 122 

Mortise  and  tennon  in  timber m 

Mouldings    67 

N 

Nails  and  tacks,  number  per  pound 193 

Number  of  required  in  carpentry  work 185 

0 

Octagon  rule  on  steel  square 76 

Octagons    3q 

Ornamental  woodwork 259 

Ornamentation   18 

Ovals    50 


,'^SI■2^^»>i'HP?■--.  ".;.'J*»V.i3!! 


INDEX  281 

P 

Panels,  forms  of 229 

Parabola  and  its  uses ^° 

Pitch-board  and  strings 160 

Pitches,  laying  off 81 

Polygons    22 

Q 

Questions  for  students 267 

B 

Rafter  rule  by  steel  square 76 

Raking  mouldings  126 

Raking  mouldings  for  pediments •  -128 

Reinforcing  timber H^ 

Roof,  core  for  conical 1^" 

Covering  of  a  conical 149 

Inclined  domical 1^1 

Roofs  and  roofing  generally 96 

Covering  domical    150 

Domical 1^^ 

Lines  for  hip 98 

Octagon  hip   99 

Sisser 104 

Trussed    1^3 

S 

Setting  rail  and  newel  post 164 

Shingles,  table  for  estimating 184 

Shingling 184 

Different  methods 1 '  ^ 

Hip  rafters  1^5 


t 


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•r'-^'^^^M^wmf^^'n 


^2  INDEX 

Shingling— Continued . 

Illustrations  of jyg 

Valleys  275 

Siding,  flooring  and  laths 134 

Slates,  number  of,  required  per  square  yard 188 

Slating 188 

Snow  and  wind  loads jgg 

Soffits,  Gothic  J55 

Splayed    I54 

Solutions  of  problems  with  steel  square 34 

Spirals   52 

Spires  and  spire  frpiuingr 108 

Steps  bracketec' jg5 

Method  of   forming    255 

Stair  building 15g 

Stairs,  dog-legged 162 

Open  string 164 

Various  styles  of iqq 

Winding I63 

Steel  square,  description  of 70 

Straight  line  solutions   32 

Strapping  timber    112 

Superficial  or  flat  measure,  table  of 183 

T 

Tangents H 

Timber  scarfing  HO 

Timber  measure,  round  and  equal-sided 183 

Treads  and  risers,  table  of 163 

Treads,  risers  and  strings I6I 

Trimming  stairs,  chimneys,  etc 89 

Trussing  and  strengthening  timber 114 

Turned  mouldings  and  carved  newels 174 


:m^^ 


m^:  ma 


INDEX  283 

w 

Weights  and  measure?,  cubic  or  solid 191 

Land  measure 1"" 

Linear  measure    1^1 

Miscellaneous  measures 191 

Square  measure   191 

fjnited  States  measure 190 

Window  frames  and  sections 171 

Wind  pressure  on  roofs 193 


F'5^      , 


td's^^i^an. 


^im^'^^TS'S^TW^V^ 


''l^^.'ji-  Tv»^n-K^w^^&B^'  •  '::i^:^^Sss^!^\t'^<:'''^ii^je^Mi^ws^^s<r'^^ 


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FOR   FURTHER   INFORMATION,  ADDRESS  THE  PUBLISHERS. 


SEND    ALL    ORDERS    FOR    PLANS   TO 

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CHICAGO.  ILU 


fiii 


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SS'-a!iP.'IP!"il''iJ  'i.'iilJll 'UHL"  fJ^^-S^UOT 


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A  rchitectural  Department 
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Remember 

We  can  mail  out  the  same  day  we  receive  the  order 
any  complete  set  of  working  plans  and  specifications 
we  illustrate  in  this  book. 

Remember  also 

That,  if  you   are   going   to   build,  complete  workmg 
plans  and  specifications  always 

Save  Money 

tor  both  the  owner  and  contractor. 


They  prevent  mistakes  and  disputes. 
They  save  time  and  money. 

They  tell   you   what  you  will   get   aid  what  you 
arc  to  do. 


Estimated   Cost 


It  is  impossible  for  any  one  to  estimate  the  cost  of  a 
building  and  have  the  figures  hold  good  in  all  sections 
of  the  country. 

We  do  not  claim  to  be  "ble  to  do  it. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  houses  we  illustrate  is 
based  on  the  most  favorable  conditions  in  all  respects 
and  does  not  include  Plumbing  and  Heating. 

Possibl}'  these  houses  cannot  be  buHt  by  you  at  the 
prices  we  name  because  we  have  used  minimum  material 
and  labor  prices  as  our  basis. 

The  home  builder  should  consult  the  Lumber 
Dealer,  the  Hardware  Dealer,  and  the  Reliable  Con- 
tractors of  his  town.  Their  knowledge  of  conditions 
in  your  particular  locality  makes  them,  and  them  only, 
capable  of  making  you  a  correct  estimate  of  the  cost. 


iDodcrn  Carpentry 


Vol. 
2 


*kDVA.NCBD  SBRIES 


=2  IBy  f  red  C.  fBOA^m 


This  U  a  continustion  ol  Mr.  Hodgson's  first  volume  on  Modera 
Carpentry  and  is  intended  to  carry  the  student  to  a  higher  plane 
than  is  reached  by  the  first  volume.    The  first  volume  of  this  series 

may  be  considered  as  the  al- 
phabet of  the  science  of  car- 
pentry and  jomery,  while  the 
present  volume  leads  the  stu- 
dent into  the  intricacies  uf  the 
art  and    shows  how    certain 
difiicuk  problems  may  be  solved 
wit)-    a    minimum   of    labor. 
Every  progressive  workman  — 
and  especially  those  •  -ho  have 
purchased  ihe  first  volume  of 
this  series — cannot  afford  to  be 
without  this  volume,  as  it  con- 
tains so  many  things  -«:essary 
the  advanced  workman  sSould 
know,  and  that  is  likely  to  crop 
up  at  any  time  during  his  daily 
labors.  The  work  is  wdl  illustrated  with  over  100  diagrams,  sketches 
and  scale  drawings  which  are  fully  described  »nd  explained  in  the 
text.     Many  puzzling  working  problems  are  shown,  desc.-ibed  and 
solved.    This  is  truly  a  valuable  aid  and  assutant  for  the  progressive 
workman.  ^^_^^^_^_^_^___^^__i^— — 

300  pagea,  fully  illuitrated.     12mo,  cloth,  price,       $1.00 

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^ater 

l^atindt 
Steam 

and  (Bas 


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jects in  the  bcik  are  'llustrated. 

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L 


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drainage  systems  into  modern  residences.  Including  the 
gravity  tank  supply  and  cylindpr  and  iank  system  of  water 
heating  and  the  pressure  cyli  er  system  of  water  heating. 
Connections  for  baili  tub.  Co.  nections  for  water  closet. 
Connections  for  lauiidi  y  tiibs.  Connections  for  wash-bowl  or 
lavatory  A  modern  bath  room.  Bath  tubs.  Lavatories. 
Closets.  Urinals.  Laundry  tubs.  Show-  r  baths  Toilet 
room  in  office  buildings.  Sinks.  Faucets,  hibb-cocks.  hoil- 
pipe  fittings.  Drainage  fittings.  Plumber's  tool  kit,  etc.,  etc. 
256  page'',  Ico  illustrations. 


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Concretes*  CementSt 

MortaLfs, 
PloLsters 
Stxiccos 

How  to  Make  and 
How  to  Use  Them 


-,1  i---'.''.n»»"l 


fred  T.  Hodgsto 


Jtrchitact 

THIS  is  another  of  Mr.  Hodgson's  practical  works  «ha'  »PP"'» 
direct'y  to  the  workman  whose  business  it  is  to  n  ake  and  apply 
?he  materials  named  in  th«  title.  As  far  as  ,t  has  been  possible 
to  avoid  chemical  descriptions  of  limes,  cements  ami  other  »'at"'*'^- 
and  theories  of  no  value  to  the  workman,  such  has  been  done  and 
nothing  has  been  admitted  into  the  pages  of  the  work  that  does  not 

''°"c"ncM7i's'  rd"«ment"hav"received  spexiaUt.ention  and  the 
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cemen  sidewalks,  putting  in  concrete  foundations,  making  cement 
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x%ork  receive  a  fair  sha.e  of  consideiation  and  the  best  methods  of 
making  and  using  a  e  Described  in  the  usual  simple  manner  so 
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n  imber  o  'lust  ations  of  tooh.  appliances  and  '"^'hods  employed 
n  making  and  applying  con  ;rete5.  cements,  mortars  plasters  and 
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follow  and  understand  the  text 
300  pages  fully  illu'-irated. 

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PUBUSHERS  CHICAGO.  U.  S.  A. 


dontrartnr  B  (f^mJi? 


TO  CORRECT  MEASURENIENTS  of  areas  and 
cubic  coD'entt  b  all  matters  relating  to  buildings  of  any 
kind.  Illustrated  with  numerous  diagrams,  sketches  and 
examples  showing  how  various  and  btricate  measure- 
ments should  be  tak^n  ::  ::     ::     :: 

By  Fre4  T.  H«4itu,  ArcUtect,  m4  W.  N.  Brswi.  C.E.  sst  QsuUty  Sirveyor 


iJTHIS  is  a  real  practical  book, 
^''  fhowing  how  all  kinds  of 
odd,  crooked  and  difficult  meas- 
urements may  be  taken  to 
secure  correct  results.  This 
work  in  no  way  conflicts  with 
any  work  on  estimatinrt  as  it 
does  not  give  prices,  neither 
does  it  attempt  to  deal  with 
questions  of  labor  or  estimate 
bow  much  th-  execution  of  cer- 
tain works  will  cos:.  It  simply 
deals  with  the  questions  of 
areas  and  cubic  contents  of  any 
given  work  and  shows  how 
their  areas  and  contents  may 
readily  be  obtained,  and  fur- 
nishes for  the  regular  estimator 
the  data  upon  which  he  can 
base  his  prices.  In  fact,  the 
work  is  a  great  aid  and  assist- 
ant to  the  regular  estimator 
uid  of  inestimable  value  to  tho 
general  builder  and  contractor. 


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Sheet 
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Workers^ 
Instructor 


By 
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PRACTICAL  BUNGALOWS 
AND  COTTAGES  FOR 
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THIS   BOOK   CONTAINS    PERSPECTl 
DRAWINGS   AND   FLOOR   PL  A' 


E 


Of  one  hiiiiilrcd  anil  fifty  low  ami  meillum  priffl 
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Complete  Examination 
Questions  and  Answers 

FOR  Marine  and 
Stationary  Engineers 


J 


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Stoam  Boilars— Tbair  construction,  cara  and  managamant 


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The  AMATEUR 

ARTIST 

Or  Oil  and  Watw  Color 
Painting  without  tho  Aid 
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UP=TO=DATE 
HARDWOOD 
FINISHER 

IN  TWO  PARTS 

By  FRED  T.  HODGSON,  Architect 

Member  of  Ontario  Association  of  Architects, 
Editor  of  "National  Builder:'  and  author  of  the 
Modern  Estimator  and  Contractors'  Guide," 
/Jodern  Carientry."  "Architectural  Drawing 
Self  Taught,"  ''Fracttcal  Uses  of  the  Steel 
Square,    etc. 

[^)F^  .'*M"^'  K'|''"«  r"***  ■9''  methods  for  workins  hardwoods,  with 
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sharpen  and  care  for  them,  Inohidlng  saws,  planes.  Hies,  scrapers, 

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woods for  various  purposes,  and  how  to  work  an<l  properly  mnnaire 

veneers.  Theproperuseof Klue, directions forpreparlng Blue. blind 
or  secret  nailing,  how  done  an<l  how  finished.  How  to  sharoeu 
and  use  scrapers  of  various  forms,  with  iUustrations  showlni;  the 
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fl„i.-*  »'">*n«™«:"nK  w.K>dw<.rk  of  all  kinds  of  woodS/  It  alsl 
i.r^,S  fl^Pf.r'"'''"*'"'^.,*''!."'*""'*'  '•'PoUfhlnB,  revarnishlng  and 
wood-flnlshlng generally.  There isashort  treatise  en  dyeing  woods 
Id  various  colors  for  Inlaying  and  marquetry  work,  with  rules  for 

3l'^I,"l?^*t»V"."^"n  T,^".'  «»«■•?.»■»«  PollHhes  of  varloui  kinds' Frinch 
polishing,  hard-oil  Hnish,  rubl>ed  and  Hat  flnish,  treatment  of  hard- 


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FR.EDER.ICK    J.  DR.AKE  ®.  CO. 

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^i-. 


